Rare variation in non-coding regions with evolutionary signatures contributes to autism spectrum disorder risk.

Little is known about the role of non-coding regions in the etiology of autism spectrum disorder (ASD). We examined three classes of non-coding regions: human accelerated regions (HARs), which show signatures of positive selection in humans; experimentally validated neural VISTA enhancers (VEs); and conserved regions predicted to act as neural enhancers (CNEs). Targeted and whole-genome analysis of >16,600 samples and >4,900 ASD probands revealed that likely recessive, rare, inherited variants in HARs, VEs, and CNEs substantially contribute to ASD risk in probands whose parents share ancestry, which enriches for recessive contributions, but modestly contribute, if at all, in simplex family structures. We identified multiple patient variants in HARs near IL1RAPL1 and in VEs near OTX1 and SIM1 and showed that they change enhancer activity. Our results implicate both human-evolved and evolutionarily conserved non-coding regions in ASD risk and suggest potential mechanisms of how regulatory changes can modulate social behavior.

Maladaptive T-Cell Metabolic Fitness in Autoimmune Diseases.

Immune surveillance and adaptive immune responses, involving continuously circulating and tissue-resident T-lymphocytes, provide host defense against infectious agents and possible malignant transformation while avoiding autoimmune tissue damage. Activation, migration, and deployment of T-cells to affected tissue sites are crucial for mounting an adaptive immune response. An effective adaptive immune defense depends on the ability of T-cells to dynamically reprogram their metabolic requirements in response to environmental cues. Inability of the T-cells to adapt to specific metabolic demands may skew cells to become either hyporesponsive (creating immunocompromised conditions) or hyperactive (causing autoimmune tissue destruction). Here, we review maladaptive T-cell metabolic fitness that can cause autoimmune diseases and discuss how T-cell metabolic programs can potentially be modulated to achieve therapeutic benefits.

Duplication Versus Deletion Through the Lens of 15q13.3: Clinical and Research Implications of Studying Copy Number Variants Associated with Neuropsychiatric Disorders in Induced Pluripotent Stem Cell-Derived Neurons.

Copy number variants (CNVs), involving duplication or deletion of susceptible intervals of the human genome, underlie a range of neurodevelopmental and neuropsychiatric disorders. As accessible in vivo animal models of these disorders often cannot be generated, induced pluripotent stem cell (iPSC) models derived from patients carrying these CNVs can reveal alterations of brain development and neuronal function that contribute to these disorders. CNVs involving deletion versus duplication of a particular genomic interval often result both in distinct clinical phenotypes and in differential phenotypic penetrance. This review initially focuses on CNVs at 15q13.3, which contribute to autism spectrum disorder, attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder, and schizophrenia. Like most CNVs, deletions at 15q13.3 usually cause severe clinical phenotypes, while duplications instead result in highly variable penetrance, with some carriers exhibiting no clinical phenotype. Here, we describe cellular and molecular phenotypes seen in iPSC-derived neuronal models of 15q13.3 duplication and deletion, which may contribute both to the differential clinical consequences and phenotypic penetrance. We then relate this work to many other CNVs involving both duplication and deletion, summarizing findings from iPSC studies and their relationship to clinical phenotype. Together, this work highlights how CNVs involving duplication versus deletion can differentially alter neural development and function to contribute to neuropsychiatric disorders. iPSC-derived neuronal models of these disorders can be used both to understand the underlying neurodevelopmental alterations and to develop pharmacological or molecular approaches for phenotypic rescue that may suggest leads for patient intervention. Top: Deletion versus duplication of the same genomic interval results in different clinical phenotypes and degrees of phenotypic penetrance. Example findings schematized. Bottom: iPSC-derived neurons from individuals with these CNVs involving deletion versus duplication likewise often differential phenotypes (increases or decreases) in the categories shown. Figure created with BioRender.com.

Rare variation in noncoding regions with evolutionary signatures contributes to autism spectrum disorder risk.

Little is known about the role of noncoding regions in the etiology of autism spectrum disorder (ASD). We examined three classes of noncoding regions: Human Accelerated Regions (HARs), which show signatures of positive selection in humans; experimentally validated neural Vista Enhancers (VEs); and conserved regions predicted to act as neural enhancers (CNEs). Targeted and whole genome analysis of >16,600 samples and >4900 ASD probands revealed that likely recessive, rare, inherited variants in HARs, VEs, and CNEs substantially contribute to ASD risk in probands whose parents share ancestry, which enriches for recessive contributions, but modestly, if at all, in simplex family structures. We identified multiple patient variants in HARs near IL1RAPL1 and in a VE near SIM1 and showed that they change enhancer activity. Our results implicate both human-evolved and evolutionarily conserved noncoding regions in ASD risk and suggest potential mechanisms of how changes in regulatory regions can modulate social behavior.

A review on fabrication of 3D printed biomaterials using optical methodologies for tissue engineering applications.

Human body comprises of different internal and external biological components. Human organs tend to fail due to continuous or sudden stress which leads to deterioration, failure, and dislocation. The choice of selection and fabrication of materials for tissue engineering play a key role in terms of suitability, sensitivity, and functioning with other organs as a replacement for failed organs. The progressive improvement of the additive manufacturing (AM) approach in healthcare made it possible to print multi-material and customized complex/intricate geometries in a layer-by-layer fashion. The customized or patient-specific implant fabrication can be easily produced with a high success rate due to the development of AM technologies with tailorable properties. The structural behavior of 3D printed biomaterials is a crucial factor in tissue engineering as they affect the functionality of the implants. Various techniques have been developed in appraising the important features and the effects of the subsequent design of the biomaterial implants. The behavior of the AM built biomaterial implants can be understood visually by an imaging system with a high spatial and spectral resolution. This review intends to present an overview of various biomaterials used in implants, followed by a detailed description of optical 3D printing procedures and evaluation of the performance of 3D printed biomaterials using optical characterization.

Epigenetic regulation during human cortical development: Seq-ing answers from the brain to the organoid.

Epigenetic regulation plays an important role in controlling gene expression during complex processes, such as development of the human brain. Mutations in genes encoding chromatin modifying proteins and in the non-protein coding sequences of the genome can potentially alter transcription factor binding or chromatin accessibility. Such mutations can frequently cause neurodevelopmental disorders, therefore understanding how epigenetic regulation shapes brain development is of particular interest. While epigenetic regulation of neural development has been extensively studied in murine models, significant species-specific differences in both the genome sequence and in brain development necessitate human models. However, access to human fetal material is limited and these tissues cannot be grown or experimentally manipulated ex vivo. Therefore, models that recapitulate particular aspects of human fetal brain development, such as the in vitro differentiation of human pluripotent stem cells (hPSCs), are instrumental for studying the epigenetic regulation of human neural development. Here, we examine recent studies that have defined changes in the epigenomic landscape during fetal brain development. We compare these studies with analogous data derived by in vitro differentiation of hPSCs into specific neuronal cell types or as three-dimensional cerebral organoids. Such comparisons can be informative regarding which aspects of fetal brain development are faithfully recapitulated by in vitro differentiation models and provide a foundation for using experimentally tractable in vitro models of human brain development to study neural gene regulation and the basis of its disruption to cause neurodevelopmental disorders.