Reducing financial barriers through the implementation of voucher incentives to promote children's participation in community sport in Australia.

BACKGROUND: Participation in organised sport and physical activity contributes to health-enhancing levels of leisure time physical activity. In Australia, 58% of children aged 0-14 years participated at least once a week in October 2015 - December 2017. To overcome the frequently cited cost barrier, sports voucher incentives have been widely implemented across Australia. METHOD: The financial value of jurisdictional vouchers and the National median financial value were used to calculate the proportion of total annual expenditure on children's participation in sport supported by sports vouchers. Participation rates using AusPlay data were estimated by age, sex and socio-economic index (SEIFA) at state and national level for children aged 0-14 years. RESULTS: Five States and Territories implemented sports vouchers from 2011 to 2018, with a median value of AU$150. Nationally, median annual expenditure for children's sport participation was AU$447 (IQR $194.2-936), with 27% reported expenditure supported by a sports voucher. The proportion of financial support from sports vouchers increased considerably with social disadvantage, rising to over 60% of total expenditure in the most disadvantaged populations. CONCLUSIONS: Socio-economic status was associated with sports-related expenditure and sports participation amongst children. Sport vouchers should target children in the most disadvantaged areas to promote participation in organised sport and physical activity.

Altered gait mechanics and elevated serum pro-inflammatory cytokines in asymptomatic patients with MRI evidence of knee cartilage loss.

OBJECTIVE: To test if sagittal plane gait mechanics parameters and serum inflammation levels differ between healthy asymptomatic subjects and asymptomatic subjects with magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) evidence of cartilage loss. DESIGN: Gait mechanics and resting serum tumor necrosis factor-α (TNFα) concentrations were measured for two groups of asymptomatic subjects recruited for a previous study: Pre-Osteoarthritis (OA) subjects had MRI evidence of partial- or full-thickness knee cartilage loss in at least one compartment (n = 52 (30 female), 1.7 ± 0.1 m, 85.3 ± 18.9 kg, 44 ± 11 years); Control subjects had no MRI features of cartilage loss, osteophytes, bone marrow lesions, nor meniscal pathology in either knee (n = 26 (13 female), 1.7 ± 0.1 m, 74.6 ± 14.9 kg, 34 ± 10 years). Discrete measures of sagittal plane gait kinematics and kinetics were compared between subject groups and adjusted for age and body mass index (BMI) using analysis of covariance (ANCOVA). Serum TNFα concentrations were compared between groups using bootstrap t-test. RESULTS: The Pre-OA group had less extended knees (P = 0.021) and decreased maximum external knee extension moment (P = 0.0062) in terminal stance during gait, as well as increased resting serum TNFα concentration (P = 0.040) as compared to Control subjects. There were no group differences in heel strike flexion angle (P = 0.14), in maximum knee flexion moment (P = 0.91), nor in first peak knee adduction moment (KAM) (post-hoc analysis, P = 0.39). CONCLUSIONS: The finding that asymptomatic subjects with cartilage loss had gait and inflammatory characteristics similar to those previously reported in symptomatic OA patients supports the idea that there are specific mechanical and biological factors that precede the onset of knee pain in the pathogenesis of OA.

Prolactin delays hair regrowth in mice.

Mammalian hair growth is cyclic, with hair-producing follicles alternating between active (anagen) and quiescent (telogen) phases. The timing of hair cycles is advanced in prolactin receptor (PRLR) knockout mice, suggesting that prolactin has a role in regulating follicle cycling. In this study, the relationship between profiles of circulating prolactin and the first post-natal hair growth cycle was examined in female Balb/c mice. Prolactin was found to increase at 3 weeks of age, prior to the onset of anagen 1 week later. Expression of PRLR mRNA in skin increased fourfold during early anagen. This was followed by upregulation of prolactin mRNA, also expressed in the skin. Pharmacological suppression of pituitary prolactin advanced dorsal hair growth by 3.5 days. Normal hair cycling was restored by replacement with exogenous prolactin for 3 days. Increasing the duration of prolactin treatment further retarded entry into anagen. However, prolactin treatments, which began after follicles had entered anagen at 26 days of age, did not alter the subsequent progression of the hair cycle. Skin from PRLR-deficient mice grafted onto endocrine-normal hosts underwent more rapid hair cycling than comparable wild-type grafts, with reduced duration of the telogen phase. These experiments demonstrate that prolactin regulates the timing of hair growth cycles in mice via a direct effect on the skin, rather than solely via the modulation of other endocrine factors.

Polymerase chain reaction for detection of guinea pig adenovirus.

Lack of in vitro cultivation methods has inhibited the development of rapid, reliable diagnostic procedures for adenovirus-associated necrotizing bronchopneumonia in guinea pigs. Because polymerase chain reaction (PCR) techniques are well established for human adenoviruses, primers for the amplification of guinea pig adenovirus DNA were evaluated. The DNA for PCR was purified from the lung tissue of spontaneously infected and healthy guinea pigs. Adenovirus DNA could only be detected in the lungs of the infected animals. Subsequent sequence analysis of PCR products revealed that the guinea pig adenovirus is a distinct adenovirus.

The niche of the gill parasite Dactylogyrus banghami (Monogenea: Dactylogyridae) on Notropis stramineus (Pisces: Cyprinidae).

Distribution of the monogenean Dactylogyrus banghami on the gills of the fish Notropis stramineus (Cyprinidae) was described by calculation of mean relative positions and Levins' niche breadths on the linear spatial resource gradients gill filament length and gill arch length. Thirty fish with 276 worms were examined; only 1 of the fish had an additional gill parasite species (Trichodina sp). Worms were more broadly and evenly distributed across the length of the gill arch than they were on the filament (breadths of 0.91 and 0.67, respectively). Mean worm positions were near the center of both resources: 54% of the distance from the arch cartilage on the filament, and 54% from the ventral end of the arch itself. The results are considered consistent with predictions about the niche structures of species in unsaturated noninteractive specialist communities.

Electron-microscopic demonstration of virus particles in acute lymphoblastic leukaemia in Sprague-Dawley rats.

Retrovirus-like particles were detected by the negative staining method in supernatants of lymph node and spleen cell suspensions prepared from Sprague-Dawley rats with spontaneous acute lymphoblastic leukaemia (ALL). Similar particles were found in supernatants of cell suspensions from a lymphoma that developed after inoculation of lymph node and spleen cell suspension prepared from animals with spontaneous ALL into the subcutis of Sprague-Dawley recipients. On ultrathin sections, budding forms of the virus particles were seen as a dot at the periphery of neoplastically transformed cells.

The effect of an antiphlogistic incorporated in liposomes on experimentally induced inflammation.

The antiphlogistic Ibuprofen incorporated in liposomes caused a decrease of the inflammatory edema induced by Carrageenan in the distal part of the rat's hind leg after both the intramuscular and percutaneous administration. The antiphlogistic effect of free Ibuprofen in the cream was weaker. Intramuscular administration of empty liposomes slowed down in the initial stages the development of inflammation and slightly diminished the size of edema.

Cytostatic effect of 9-(2-phosphonomethoxyethyl) adenine (PMEA). II. Lymphoblastic leukemia in Sprague-Dawley rats.

Two cases of spontaneous acute lymphoblastic leukemia in the inbred strain of Sprague-Dawley (Prague) rats have been observed. Since its reliable transplantability in syngeneic recipients was established, leukemic animals were used to test the cytostatic effect of PMEA. The treatment resulted in a significant prolongation of survival time of the treated animals. At the same time histological examination of PMEA-treated and untreated animals indicated that the drug effectively slows down the growth of lymphoma at the site of inoculation and inhibits the subsequent progression of tumor cells in the lung, liver, spleen and lymph nodes.

Treatment of transplanted spontaneous rat T-cell leukaemia with local administration of recombinant murine interleukin-2.

Spontaneous rat CD4+CD8-T-cell leukaemia transplanted in syngeneic recipients served as an experimental model system for IL-2 therapy. As a source of IL-2, supernatants from in vitro cultured plasmacytoma cell line X63-m-IL2 secreting constitutively recombinant murine IL-2 were utilized. Administration of IL-2, s.c. to the vicinity of the tumour inoculum, suppressed tumour growth. The tumour-inhibitory IL-2 effects were time- and dose-dependent. When the treatment has started 10 days after the challenge with 10(4) leukaemia cells, IL-2 inhibitory effects on the lymphoma growth in situ were demonstrated by lower tumour weight combined with necrotic changes. No histological signs of lymphoma generalization were found in parenchymatous organs of IL-2-treated rats in contrast to the untreated controls. No histological or functional injuries to the kidneys due to IL-2 administration were found. The results of effector cell phenotyping demonstrated the kinetics of the CD4+/CD8+ ratio characterized by CD4+ T-cell depletion and resulting increase in the percentage of CD8+ PBL.

Electron microscopic demonstration of the interaction of liposomes and cells in vitro.

We have investigated the interaction of liposomes with the continuous cell lines P388D1 and L-132 and mouse peritoneal macrophages. To distinguish the liposomes from other vesicular structures, we have used liposomes with incorporated protein G and gold. A heterogeneous mixture of multilamellar liposomes 30 nm up to 1000 nm in size has been employed. Samples were examined at different time intervals. We found differences in the uptake of liposomes with regard to size and rate. Cells of a P388D1 monolayer took up liposomes by endocytosis very early after addition of liposomes and the number of lysosomes in their cytoplasm increased. In L-132 cells, first a fusion occurred between liposomes and the cell cytoplasmic protrusions, in the cytoplasm of which the mitochondria had multiplied. Peritoneal macrophages phagocytosed mainly large multilamellar liposomes and the membranous system of Golgi apparatus was the most prominent structure in the cytoplasm. Phagocytosis in P388D1 and L-132 cells was noted sporadically as late as 24 h after addition of liposomes to the cells.

Electron microscopic demonstration of the penetration of liposomes through skin.

To verify the penetration of liposomes through skin, we have used liposomes with encapsulated protein G-gold conjugate in a gel vehicle. Skin samples were examined 2, 4, 24, 48, and 72 h after liposome application. Our findings show that the penetration of liposomes through skin depends mainly on their size. Liposomes up to 600 nm in diameter penetrate through skin rather easily, whereas liposomes 1000 nm and more in diameter remain interiorized in the stratum corneum. The main penetration of liposomes proceeds along the hair sheaths as indicated by larger amounts of free liposomes in the corium of guinea pigs.

Subchronic preexposure to carbon monoxide modifies heart response to a combined CO + isoproterenol challenge in rats.

The effect of repeated exposure to carbon monoxide (CO) on the response of middle-age rats to an acute CO exposure combined with a low dose of a sympathomimetic agent was studied. A group of 12 rats (male albino, Wistar, age 9 months) without ECG abnormalities was divided into two subgroups matched for weight, heart rate and ECG: one subgroup was exposed to 500 ppm CO for 6 h/d, 5 d/w, for 6 weeks (peak COHb 31.5%, SD 3.5); the other one (controls) was exposed to fresh air. Two or three days after the last exposure both groups underwent combined challenge with 0.025 mg/kg isoproterenol s.c. and 90 minute exposure to CO in a concentration increasing from 500 to 1500 ppm; ECG was recorded continuously. The hearts were examined morphometrically and histologically. The CO-preexposed subgroup had, as compared to controls: 1) significantly higher blood hemoglobin (by 25%), erythrocyte count (by 28%) and volume (by 6%), and hematocrit (by 33%); 2) the same peak COHb; 3) lower basic heart rate and an earlier decrease after isoproterenol, 4) significantly smaller increase in ECG abnormalities and arrhythmias after isoproterenol and during CO exposure; 5) nonsignificantly higher heart weight indexes; 6) a nonsignificantly lower score of histological abnormalities. The global score of ECG pathology during CO exposure (abnormal pattern or arrhythmia) correlated best (multiple corr. coef. >0.9) with end-exposure free (non CO bound) hemoglobin (negatively) and with mean heart rate during exposure (positively): the lower score in the preexposed subgroup was attributable primarily to the increased hemoglobin. Six-week intermittent CO exposure induced marked compensatory processes (hematological) but only a tendency to adaptational changes in the heart (by gross morphometry), and decreased the ECG response to CO+ isoproterenol challenge at the same COHb.

Cysticercus bovis: pinocytosis in the Cysticercus tegument.

The authors have found that pinocytosis occurs in the tegument of C. bovis from the fourth week after infection. Electron-lucid bladders surrounded by plasma membrane were encountered in the distal cytoplasm. The pinocytosis occurred in form of micropinocytotic bladders only in the bladder tegument but not in the scolex. The bladders appeared first in the superficial part of the distal cytoplasm. During the following periods of development of the larva they were dispersed in the whole distal cytoplasm and were found even in the processes of subtegumental cells and inside these cells near the heterolysosomes.

Ultrastructure of the bladder tegument of Cysticercus bovis in various stages of its development.

Early developmental stages of C. bovis possess microvilli on the tegument. The differentiation of microtriches occurs at the time of scolex formation. The distal cytoplasm contains rod-shaped bodies and vesicles of various sizes. Both organelles originate from subtegumental cells. During the development of the bladder wall, three types of cells differing in their structure and organization of granular endoplasmic reticulum are present in the subtegumental layer. After formation of the scolex the cells in which the glycogen is formed sink into the region of parenchyma. The distal cytoplasm contains sensory endings of only one type, which do not penetrate on the surface of the tegument and remain under the plasmatic membrane covering the distal cytoplasm.

Tissue reaction in experimental cysticercosis of sheep and goats caused by infection with Taenia saginata eggs.

In experimental infection of sheep with Taenia saginata eggs the intensity of infection may be influenced by the age of the animal at the time of infection, the height of the infection dose and the mode of infection (perorally in capsules or by means of an oesophagus tube). In non-adequate intermediate hosts of T. saginata (sheep, goats), the cellular reaction around the young cysticercus is very strong, but it differs from the reaction known in bovine cysticercosis: large macrophages, which migrate to the larva at the early phase of infection in cattle, are lacking in sheep and goats. Neither the new formation of collagen in the granulation tissue was observed in these hosts, but the demarcation of the mode was formed by a wide zone of connective tissue at the periphery. The development of the cysticercus was markedly retarded and already four weeks after infection a majority of cysticerci were dead. Nodular changes persisted still 40 days p.i., when the cysts are transparent in cattle. Neither cysticerci nor their remnants were found at that time. The results of indirect haemagglutination reaction are not constant in inadequate intermediate hosts (particularly in sheep) and only low titres of antibodies can be detected even in strong infections.

Morphology of Cysticercus bovis during its development.

On day 14 p.i., C. bovis is a spherical formation without cavity (in neonatally infected calves, the cavity already starts to form). On day 21 p.i., a conical anlage of the scolex is formed and on day 23 p.i., it bears a conspicuous invagination of the tegument. On day 28 p.i., the scolex with spiral canal, sucker anlages and single calcareous bodies is developed. On day 42 p.i., the suckers are fully differentiated and the calcareous bodies in scolex parenchyma are distributed up to below the level of suckers. On day 55 p.i., the calcareous bodies are present in the morphologically differentiated scolex even below the suckers. The authors assume that at that time the larva is already infective and if its infectivity is assessed on the basis of morphological criteria, the presence, number and distribution of calcareous bodies should be considered.

Some aspects of histochemical studies on the parasite and tissue reaction in bovine cysticercosis.

Histochemical studies on the cysticercus and surrounding tissue reaction were performed at various intervals after experimental infection. It was found that acid mucosubstances and proteins with SH- and SS-groups appeared first in the granulation tissue around the cysticercus (on about day 14 p.i.) and only later (on day 28 p.i.) in the tegument of the cysticercus where they were localized in the rim of microtriches. This envelope consisting of mucosubstances and proteins seems to be identical with the electron-dense substance found on the surface of developing cysticercus during electron-microscopical studies. It is considered to be a mimicry enabling the cysticerci to survive even in an immunologically unfavourable environment. Phospholipids were found in activated fibroblasts and in some cells of macrophage type on days 21 and 30 p.i. and in a large number in subtegumental cells of cysticercus on days 28-34 p.i. This phenomenon seems to be correlated with the increased activity of subtegumental cells of the larva in this period. In morphologically fully differentiated cysticerci, the reaction for phospholipids in subtegumental cells and distal cytoplasm was only feebly positive. Phospholipids were not detected in the rim of microtriches at any time after infection.

Ultrastructure of the hatched and unhatched oncospheres of Taenia saginata.

The ultrastructure of the oncospheres of Taenia saginata after treatment with artificial gastric juice is described. After the treatment with the gastric juice, the oncosphere remains in the embryophore. Finger-like processes are formed on the membrane separating the granular layer of embryophore from the oncospheral membrane and micropores arise in the outer unit membrane of the oncospheral membrane. After the treatment with the intestinal juice, the embryophore disintegrates. The oncospheral membrane is again without pores and it is shed off after induction of active movement of the oncosphere. The activity of penetration glands increases: in the first phase, the secretion accumulates beneath the oncospheral membrane and after its shedding there appear granules of other type in the glands. This second phase of secretion seems to be important for the penetration of the oncosphere through the mucosa of the small intestine into the processes. The functional importance of the structural changes observed, the two types of secretion of penetration glands and their relation to pathological changes in the infected organ, and immune reactions are discussed.

The activity of alkaline and acid phosphatase and non-specific esterase in experimental bovine cysticercosis at different stages of development.

The activity of alkaline and acid phosphatase and non-specific esterase was detected both in the parasite and in the tissue reaction on days 21, 23, 42, 168 and 261 after experimental infection. A very high activity of all enzymes was found in 21- and 23-day-old C. bovis in the tegument of whole bladder. In 42, 168 and 261 days old cysticerci the activity of alkaline acid phosphatase was limited only to a part of bladder surrounding the opening of the spinal canal, whereas the activity of non-specific esterase was present in the whole bladder. The activity of non-specific esterase was localized in subtegumental cells of the bladder wall and in small bodies in the bladder and scolex. These bodies increased in number with the age of the cysticercus. In the tissue reaction, a high activity of alkaline phosphatase was detected only in the period of about 20 days after infection in the layer of activated fibroblasts. The activity of acid phosphatase was demonstrated in the tissue reaction in all time periods and was localized in the histiocytes, macrophages, necrotic exudate, necrotic foci and pigment cells at the periphery of tissue reaction. These cells exhibited also the activity of non-specific esterase.