Efficacy and mechanism of aluminium phthalocyanine and its sulphonated derivatives mediated photodynamic therapy on murine tumours.

The efficacy of photodynamic therapy (PDT) mediated by aluminium phthalocyanine (AlPc) and its mono- and disulphonated derivatives (AlPcS1 and AlPcS2, respectively) on murine EMT-6 tumour were compared in vivo. AlPc (0.25 mumol/kg) PDT resulted in no tumour recurrence in all treated mice. In contrast, PDT with AlPcS1 (2 mumol/kg) and AlPcS2 (1 mumol/kg) only produced tumour cure in 75% and 86% of mice, respectively. Immediately after AlPc-PDT, tumour cells were found to be viable as determined by in vitro clonogenicity, but progressive cell death occurred thereafter. In contrast, AlPcS1 and AlPcS2 PDT produced substantial cell death (approximately 35% and 70%, respectively, of entire tumour) immediately after phototherapy, and yet further loss of tumour cell viability continued after PDT. In all cases, few vascular effects were observed at 0 h post-PDT, as indicated by the retention of 99mTc-MIBI in the tumour. However, the reduction of blood flow in tumours progressed with time, such that blood flow in tumours fell to approximately 25% of the control level by 24 h after both AlPc and AlPcS1 PDT. With AlPcS2, there was only an approximate 50% fall in tumour blood flow by 24 h. These results demonstrate a greater PDT efficiency with AlPc on tumour destruction, which is an indirect mechanism involving damage of tumour vasculature, whereas AlPcS2 has a greater effect on direct tumour cytotoxicity and AlPcS1 exerts both direct and indirect modes of action against tumours.

Syntheses and photodynamic activities of novel trisulfonated zinc phthalocyanine derivatives.

The synthesis of water-soluble, unsymmetrical, trisulfonated zinc phthalocyanines (ZnPcS3) as single products of the ring expansion of boron tri(4-sulfo)subphthalocyanine (SubPc) is reported. The novel, water-soluble trisulfo-SubPcB(OH) was prepared via hydrolysis of the tris(4-chlorosulfonyl)SubPcB(Br) which in turn was obtained from the condensation of 4-(chlorosulfonyl)phthalonitrile with BBr3 in 1-chlorobenzene. A number of ZnPcS3 analogues were prepared via the reaction of S3SubPcB (OH) with different diiminoisoindoline derivatives of increasing hydrophobicity. The reaction proceeds at relative low temperature with acceptable yields. Metalation of free base Pc's with zinc acetate dihydrate afforded the corresponding zinc complexes. Photodynamic activities were measured against the EMT-6 mouse mammary tumor cell line and compared to those of the known ZnPcS3 and ZnPcS4. Added (t-Bu)benzo and (t-Bu)naphtho groups increased the in vitro cell photoinactivation efficacy of the ZnPcS3, whereas addition of a fourth sulfobenzo or bulky diphenylpyrazino group decreased the activity of the parent molecule. The (t-Bu)naphthotrisulfobenzoporphyrazine induced the best in vivo photodynamic tumor control which, combined with its good solubility and broad absorption spectrum, renders this compound an interesting dye for photodynamic applications in medicine.

Synthesis, receptor binding, and target-tissue uptake of carbon-11 labeled carbamate derivatives of estradiol and hexestrol.

The reaction of ethyl chloroformate with amino compounds has been evaluated as a simple route to carbon-11 labeling of steroid hormone-receptor-based imaging agents. Both a 17 beta-amino analogue of estradiol and an aminoethyl derivative of the nonsteroidal estrogen hexestrol with potential affinity for the estrogen receptor were studied. The unlabeled carbamate derivatives of the amino estrogens were prepared by standard methods, and the 11C-labeled analogues were synthesized from [11C]ethyl chloroformate, generated by purging ethanol with [11C]phosgene. Both carbamates showed weak in vitro binding affinity for the estrogen receptor, and only the 11C-labeled hexestrol exhibited a small but significant estrogen-responsive uterus uptake in immature rats.

Hydroxyphthalocyanines as potential photodynamic agents for cancer therapy.

A series of benzyl-substituted phthalonitriles, substituted at the 3-, 4-, and 4,5-positions, underwent varied condensations with phthalonitrile to give a series of protected (monohydroxy- and polyhydroxyphthalocyaninato)zinc(II) derivatives which were readily cleaved to give several hydroxyphthalocyanines (ZnPc) (phthalocyanine phenol analogues). Their efficacy as sensitizers for the photodynamic therapy (PDT) of cancer was evaluated on the EMT-6 mammary tumor cell line. In vitro, the 2-hydroxy ZnPc (32) was the most active, followed by the 2,3- and 2,9-dihydroxy ZnPc (39 and 45), with the 2,9,16-trihydroxy ZnPc (33) exhibiting the least activity. In vivo, the monohydroxy derivative 32 and the 2,3-dihydroxy derivative 39 were both efficient in inducing tumor necrosis at 1 micromol kg-1, but complete tumor regression was poor, even at 2 micromol/kg. In contrast, the 2,9-dihydroxy isomer 45, at 2 micromol kg-1, induced tumor necrosis in all animals treated, with 75% complete regression. These results underline the importance of the position of the substituents on the Pc macrocycle to optimize tumor response and confirm the PDT potential of the unsymmetrical Pcs bearing functional groups on adjacent benzene rings.

Synthesis and photodynamic activities of silicon 2,3-naphthalocyanine derivatives.

Bis(tert-butyldimethylsiloxy)- (7), bis(dimethylthexylsiloxy)- (8), bis(tri-n-hexylsiloxy)- (9), and bis(dimethyloctadecylsiloxy)silicon 2,3-naphthalocyanines (10) were prepared via substitution of the bis(hydroxy) precursor with the corresponding chlorosilane ligands and characterized by spectroscopic and combustion analyses. They show strong absorption around 780 nm where tissues exhibit optimal transparency. Compounds 7-10 are capable of producing singlet oxygen. They are relatively photostable although less stable than the analogous phthalocyanine, i.e., the bis-(dimethylthexylsiloxy)silicon phthalocyanine (12). They were evaluated as potential photosensitizers for the photodynamic therapy (PDT) of cancer in vitro against V-79 cells and in vivo against the EMT-6 tumor in Balb/c mice. In vitro all four dyes showed limited phototoxicity combined with substantial dark toxicity. Surprisingly, in vivo (i.v., 0.1 mumol/kg, 24 h prior to the photoirradiation of the tumor with 780-nm light, 190 mW/cm2, 400 J/cm2) all dyes induced tumor regression in at least 50% of mice whereas compound 8 gave a complete tumor response in 80% of mice without apparent systemic toxicity at doses as high as 10 mumol/kg. At 24 h postinjection, compound 8 showed a favorable tumor to muscle ratio of 7, assuring minimal damage to the healthy tissue surrounding the tumor during PDT. Our data confirm the potential of silicon naphthalocyanines as far-red-shifted photosensitizers for the PDT of cancer and indicate the importance of the selection of the two axial silicon ligands for optimal photodynamic efficacy.

High-resolution PET imaging for in vivo monitoring of tumor response after photodynamic therapy in mice.

UNLABELLED: The aim of this study was to investigate the use of [18F]fluoro-2-deoxy-D-glucose (FDG) and a small-animal PET scanner to assess early tumor response after photodynamic therapy (PDT) in mice. PDT consists of intravenous administration of a photosensitizer that accumulates preferentially in tumor tissue, followed by local illumination of the tumor with red light. Two different photosensitizers were used: Photofrin (PII), which has been approved for clinical use, and disulfonated aluminum phthalocyanine (AIPcS), which is a second-generation drug. These drugs have been shown to induce tumor necrosis through different action mechanisms, i.e., mainly initial vascular stasis (PII) or direct tumor cell kill (AIPcS). FDG PET was used to follow both perfusion and metabolic activity in the tumor tissue. METHODS: The study was performed using a mouse model implanted with two contralateral murine mammary tumors (5 mm diameter x 2.5 mm thickness) on the back. Only one tumor was subjected to PDT, whereas the other tumor served as a control. A total of 13 mice were studied, 1 without illumination, 3 at 30 min and 3 at 2 h after PDT with both PII-PDT and AIPcS-PDT. Dynamic PET imaging of the mice, which were placed in pairs in a prostate position parallel to the transaxial planes of the Sherbrooke animal PET scanner, was performed after a bolus injection of 11 MBq (300 microCi) FDG. Blood samples were collected concurrently from 1 mouse during each study using an automated microvolumetric blood sampler. RESULTS: Analysis of the tumor time-activity curves showed that (a) scans during the first 3 min provided an estimate of tumor perfusion, as confirmed by the blood samples; (b) the tumor FDG uptake after 15 min was a direct measurement of tumor metabolism clearly demonstrating the relative efficacy of the two PDT drugs; and (c) the tumor tracer concentration in the interval 3-15 min after FDG injection is an appropriate indicator of the different mechanisms of tumor necrosis through indirect vascular stasis (PII) or direct cell kill (AIPcS). CONCLUSION: This pilot study confirmed the feasibility of using dynamic in vivo PET imaging for assessing early tumor response to PDT in mice.

Measurement of tumor vascular damage in mice with 99mTc-MIBI following photodynamic therapy.

The clinical perfusion agent 99mTc-MIBI was used to monitor changes in tumor vascular perfusion (TVP) induced by Photofrin (PII)-mediated photodynamic therapy (PDT). BALB/c mice bearing an EMT-6 tumor on each hind thigh were given an intravenous injection of 1, 2 or 5 mg kg-1 PII. Twenty-four hours later, one tumor was illuminated (600-650 nm, 200 mW cm-2, 400 J cm-2) while the other served as a control. At various time intervals after PDT (0, 2 and 24 h) mice received an intravenous injection of 99mTc-hexakismethoxyisobutylisonitrile (MIBI) (0.18 MBq g-1) and were sacrificed 2 min later. The light-treated and the untreated tumors were then dissected, the radioactivity was counted and the percentage of the injected dose per gram of tumor (%ID g-1) was calculated as a measure of TVP. We observed that TVP is drug dose dependent, develops progressively with time post-PDT and is inversely related to PDT efficacy. Our data show that early tumor retention of 99mTc-MIBI is a simple method to assess TVP and vascular damage induced by PDT.

Photodynamic activities and skin photosensitivity of the bis(dimethylthexylsiloxy)silicon 2,3-naphthalocyanine in mice.

The photodynamic therapy (PDT) activity of the bis(dimethylthexylsiloxy)silicon 2,3-naphthalocyanine (SiNc 8) was evaluated against the EMT-6 tumor implanted intradermally in BALB/c mice. The SiNc 8 was formulated in aqueous emulsions based on Cremophor EL or Solutol HS 15. The formulation was shown to affect plasma clearance and overall pharmacokinetics. Compared to Cremophor, Solutol promoted rapid plasma clearance and high liver retention of the dye, combined with a slight increase of dye tumor concentrations. The PDT action spectrum for tumor response of SiNc 8 in Cremophor (190 mW cm-2, 200 J cm-2, 24 h postinjection [p.i.] of 1 mumol kg-1) showed a maximum at 780 nm, which corresponds to the absorption maximum of the monomeric dye as well as the in vivo maximum change in the "diffuse optical density" produced by the dye. The extent of tumor necrosis increased with augmented dye and light doses. Regardless of the formulation, at 1 h p.i. of 0.1 mumol kg-1 SiNc 8, PDT efficiency (190 mW cm-2, 400 J cm-2) was high but accompanied by severe damage to normal tissues, at 24 h p.i. PDT resulted in complete tumor regression in 80% of the animals without adverse effects to adjacent tissues, while at 72 h p.i. PDT induced no tumor response with Cremophor and only a partial response with Solutol. At the latter time point, plasma dye clearance was nearly complete while tumor tissue levels remained high, suggesting that tumor response correlates with plasma rather than tumor dye levels. Skin sensitivity of SKhI mice to solar-simulated radiation was lower with SiNc 8 as compared to Photofrin. Our data suggest the potential of SiNc 8 as a far-red absorbing photosensitizer in clinical PDT.

Receptor-mediated targeting of phthalocyanines to macrophages via covalent coupling to native or maleylated bovine serum albumin.

Targeted delivery of aluminum tetrasulfophthalocyanine (AlPcS4) to the scavenger receptor of macrophages, via coupling to maleylated bovine serum albumin (mal-BSA), was explored as a means to improve photodynamic efficacy. The AlPcS4 was covalently coupled to BSA (9:1 molar ratio) via one or two sulfonamide-hexanoic-amide spacer chains, followed by treatment with maleic anhydride to yield the mal-BSA-phthalocyanine conjugates. The latter were tested for singlet oxygen production, receptor-mediated cell uptake and phototoxicity toward J774 cells of macrophage origin and nonphagocytic EMT-6 cells. Cell uptake of 125I-mal-BSA showed specific binding for J774 cells but not for EMT-6 cells. Competition studies of the conjugates with 125I-mal-BSA showed that coupling of AlPcS4 to BSA resulted in recognition of the conjugate by the scavenger receptor, whereas coupling to mal-BSA further enhanced its binding affinity. This suggests that affinity for the scavenger receptor is related to the overall negative charge of the protein. Phototoxicity of the conjugates toward J774 cells paralleled their relative affinity, with mal-BSA-AlPcS4 coupled via two spacer chains showing the highest activity. The conjugates were less phototoxic toward the EMT-6 cell line. The activities in both cell lines of all conjugated AlPcS4 preparations were, however, lower than that of the free disulfonated AlPcS2. Possible implications for the in vivo use of protein-photosensitizer conjugates to target selectively various macrophage-associated disorders is discussed.

Eradication of multiple myeloma and breast cancer cells by TH9402-mediated photodynamic therapy: implication for clinical ex vivo purging of autologous stem cell transplants.

High-dose chemotherapy combined with autologous transplantation using bone marrow or peripheral blood-derived stem cells (PBSC) is now widely used in the treatment of hematologic malignancies as well as some solid tumors like breast cancer (BC). However, some controversial results were recently obtained in the latter case. The presence of malignant cells in the autograft has been associated with the recurrence of the disease, and purging procedures are needed to eliminate this risk. The aim of this study was to evaluate the potential of the photosensitizer 4,5-dibromorhodamine methyl ester (TH9402), a dibrominated rhodamine derivative, to eradicate multiple myeloma (MM) and BC cell lines, while sparing more than 50% of normal pluripotential blood stem cells from healthy volunteers. The human BC MCF-7 and T-47D and MM RPMI 8226 and NCI-H929 cell lines were used to optimize the photodynamic purging process. Cell concentration and the cell suspension thickness as well as the dye and light doses were varied in order to eventually treat 1-2 L of apheresis. The light source consisted of two fluorescent scanning tubes emitting green light centered about 515 nm. The cellular uptake of TH9402 was measured during the incubation and washout periods and after photodynamic treatment (PDT) using spectrofluorometric analysis. The limiting dilution assay showed that an eradication rate of more than 5 logs is obtained when using a 40 min incubation with 5-10 microM dye followed by a 90 min washout period and a light dose of 5-10 J/cm2 (2.8 mW/cm2) in all cell lines. Agitating the 2 cm thick cell suspension containing 20 x 10(6) cells/mL during PDT was essential for maximal photoinactivation. Experiments on mobilized PBSC obtained from healthy volunteers showed that even more drastic purging conditions than those found optimal for maximal eradication of the malignant cell lines were compatible with a good recovery of hematopoietic progenitors cells. The absence of significant toxicity towards normal hematopoietic stem cells, combined with the 5 logs eradication of cancer cell lines induced by this procedure suggests that TH9402 offers an excellent potential as an ex vivo photodynamic purging agent for autologous transplantation in MM and BC treatment.

Evidence for different mechanisms of EMT-6 tumor necrosis by photodynamic therapy with disulfonated aluminum phthalocyanine or photofrin: tumor cell survival and blood flow.

A comparison was made of photodynamic therapy (PDT) mediated by two photosensitizers, the disulfonated aluminum phthalocyanine (AlPcS2) and Photofrin* (PII) with regard to their mechanism of action on murine tumors. Balb/c mice bearing intradermally growing EMT-6 tumors were injected intravenously with either 1 mumol kg-1 body weight of AlPcS2 or 5 mg/kg of PII 24 h prior to red light irradiation from a Xenon lamp (650-700 nm, 200 mW cm-2, for AlPcS2 and 600-650 nm, 400 J cm-2 for PII. Tumor cell survival following in vivo PDT was determined by an in vitro clonogenicity assay on the dissociated tumors. Immediately after the completion of light irradiation, a reduction of approximately 72% in the number of clonogenic cells was seen with AlPcS2-treated tumor versus approximately 24% of that for PII-treated tumor. Further loss of clonogenic cell survival progressed as a function of time following PDT, and was considered to be the consequence of indirect PDT action, however, the decline in cell viability was steeper in the first 6 h with PII-PDT than with AlPcS2-PDT. 24 h after PDT, the clonogenic capacity of both AlPcS2-and PII-PDT treated tumor fell to approximately 3% of the control tumor. The PDT effect on tumor blood flow as a measure of the tumor vascular damage was monitored by the retention of 99mTc-MIBI in the tumor. Little effect on tumor blood flow was seen with AlPcS2-PDT at 0 h after the completion of light treatment. Thereafter the blood flow declined slowly and remained at approximately 50% the level of the control by 24 h post-PDT. In contrast, PII provoked a approximately 40% reduction of tumor blood flow immediately after the completion of photo irradiation, which then fell to approximately 20% within 2 h and approximately 7% by 24 h post-PDT. These results indicate the involvement of both direct and indirect mechanisms in the PDT induced tumor necrosis. However, AlPcS2-PDT exerted a larger direct tumor cell phototoxic effect, whereas PII-PDT induced tumor cell death to a greater extent via an indirect effect that parallels the extensive damage to the tumor vasculature.

Preparation and characterization of pH-responsive polymeric micelles for the delivery of photosensitizing anticancer drugs.

pH-responsive polymeric micelles (PM) consisting of random copolymers of N-isopropylacrylamide (NIPA), methacrylic acid (MAA), and octadecyl acrylate (ODA) were prepared and characterized. The critical aggregation concentration, as determined by a fluorescence probe technique, was approximately 10 mg/L in water and phosphate-buffered saline. Phase transition pH was estimated at 5.7. The decrease in pH was accompanied by the destruction of hydrophobic clusters. Micelle size was dependent on temperature and the nature of the aqueous medium. The micelles were successfully loaded with a substantial amount of a photoactive anticancer drug, namely, aluminum chloride phthalocyanine (AlClPc). pH-responsive PM loaded with AlClPc were found to exhibit higher cytotoxicity against EMT-6 mouse mammary cells in vitro than control Cremophor EL formulation. These results show the potential of poly(NIPA-co-MAA-co-ODA) for in vivo administration of water-insoluble, photosensitizing anticancer drugs.

In-vitro and in-vivo evaluation of pH-responsive polymeric micelles in a photodynamic cancer therapy model.

pH-sensitive polymeric micelles of randomly and terminally alkylated N-isopropylacrylamide copolymers were prepared and characterized. Aluminium chloride phthalocyanine (AlClPc), a second generation sensitizer for the photodynamic therapy of cancer, was incorporated in the micelles by dialysis. Their photodynamic activities were evaluated in-vitro against EMT-6 mouse mammary tumour cells and in-vivo against EMT-6 tumours implanted intradermally on each hind thigh of Balb/c mice. pH-sensitive polymeric micelles were found to exhibit greater cytotoxicity in-vitro than control Cremophor EL formulations. In the presence of chloroquine, a weak base that raises the internal pH of acidic organelles, in-vitro experiments demonstrated the importance of endosomalllysosomal acidity for the pH-sensitive polymeric micelles to be fully effective. Biodistribution was assessed by fluorescence of tissue extracts after intravenous injection of 2 micromol kg(-1) AlClPc. The results revealed accumulation of AlClPc polymeric micelles in the liver, spleen and lungs, with a lower tumour uptake than AlClPc Cremophor EL formulations. However, polymeric micelles exhibited similar activity in-vivo to the control Cremophor EL formulations, demonstrating the higher potency of AlClPc polymeric micelles when localized in tumour tissue. It was concluded that polymeric micelles represent a good alternative to Cremophor EL preparations for the vectorization of hydrophobic drugs.

PEG-coated poly(lactic acid) nanoparticles for the delivery of hexadecafluoro zinc phthalocyanine to EMT-6 mouse mammary tumours.

Hexadecafluoro zinc phthalocyanine (ZnPcF16), a second generation sensitizer for the photodynamic therapy of cancer, was incorporated in three vehicles: poly(D,L-lactic acid) (PLA) nanoparticles, polyethylene glycol (PEG)-coated nanoparticles and a Cremophor EL (CRM) oil-water emulsion. Nanoparticles were prepared by the salting-out procedure. Biodistribution of the dye was assessed by fluorescence in EMT-6 mammary tumour bearing mice after intravenous injection of 1 mumol kg-1 ZnPcF16. Plain nanoparticles were rapidly retained by the reticuloendothelial system (RES) as reflected by the low area under the blood concentration-time curve (AUC0-168, 57 micrograms h g-1). Little tumour uptake of the dye was observed with this formulation. In contrast, PEG-coated nanoparticles displayed a reduced RES uptake, leading to significantly higher blood levels over an extended period (t1/2 30 h; AUC 0-168 227 micrograms h g-1) and enhanced tumour uptake. At 48 h post injection, tumour to skin and tumour to muscle concentration ratios reached 3.5 and 10.8, respectively. Blood levels of ZnPcF16 after administration as a CRM emulsion decreased faster than with PEG-coated nanoparticles (t1/2 12 h), but since no early liver uptake was observed, the AUC0-168 and the tumour uptake were only slightly lower. However, with the CRM formulation, a late liver uptake was observed, reaching 51% of the injected dose after 7 days.