Child-related attributions of hostile intent and harsh discipline: Moderating effects of anger.

Two studies tested whether attributions of hostile intent (AHI) and anger for ambiguous child behaviors uniquely predict parents' harsh verbal discipline (HVD) and harsh physical discipline (HPD) or whether AHI only predicts harsh discipline when AHI occurs in conjunction with anger, as suggested by the Integrated Cognitive Model of general aggression (Wilkowski & Robinson, 2010, J. Pers., 78, 9-38). Replicating previous studies, the expected positive bivariate relationships between AHI, anger, HVD, and HPD were found in Study 1 (N = 493). However, when AHI, anger, and the AHI by anger interaction were considered simultaneously, patterns of prediction varied by discipline type. For HVD, high levels of AHI, high levels of anger, and the AHI by anger interaction (at high levels of AHI and anger) each were significant predictors. For HPD, low levels of AHI, high levels of anger, and the AHI by anger interaction (at high levels of AHI and anger) were significant predictors, suggesting a possible suppressor effect for AHI. These results were replicated in Study 2 ( N = 503). Thus, there was support for the contention that AHI only predicts harsh discipline when AHI occurs in conjunction with anger with respect to HPD but this was not the case for HVD. Since AHI suppressor effects were observed for HPD in two large sample studies, variables that may account for the AHI suppressor effects and the need for testing more complex interactive predictive models of harsh parenting behaviors are discussed.

Does parental use of harsh discipline and punishment in response to ambiguous child situations vary by child physical abuse risk?

BACKGROUND/OBJECTIVES: The present study investigated the extent to which fathers and mothers at high-risk and low-risk for child physical abuse (CPA) differed in their use of harsh discipline and punishment when presented ambiguous child situations (situations where differences in positive and negative valences are close to zero). PARTICIPANTS/METHODS: High-risk for CPA parents (N = 74: fathers, n = 41; mothers, n = 33) and low-risk parents (N = 178: fathers, n = 91; mothers, n = 87) were asked to indicate their likelihood of using harsh verbal discipline (HVD), harsh physical discipline (HPD), and punishment (i.e., retributive harm separate from HVD and HPD) after viewing each of eighteen ambiguous child situations. RESULTS: As expected, high-risk, compared to low-risk, for CPA parents were significantly (ps < 0.001) more likely to use HVD (d = 0.546), HPD (d = 0.595), and punishment (d = 0.564). Overall, fathers, relative to mothers, were significantly more likely to use HVD (d = 0.261) and HPD (d = 0.238). For punishment, however, there was no significant parental role (father, mother) difference (d = 0.136). CONCLUSIONS: Since in everyday living situations many child behaviors are ambiguous, the findings that parents, especially high-risk for CPA parents, use harsh discipline and punishment when encountering ambiguous child situations suggest that non-contingent harsh child-related parental behaviors may be frequent in the lives of some children. The findings that parents may use non-contingent discipline and punishment suggest the need to explore whether, when these parenting behaviors occur, they increase the likelihood of negative child outcomes.

Does the Fading Affect Bias Vary by Memory Type and a Parent's Risk of Physically Abusing a Child? A Replication and Extension.

Research described in the present article assessed (a) whether a fading affect bias (FAB) occurred in parent memories of a child as well as parent general personal memories and (b) whether either or both of these FAB effects was moderated by a parent's risk of physically abusing a child. A FAB effect, unmoderated by parents' abuse risk status, emerged for parents' general personal memories. In contrast, the FAB was muted when high abuse risk parents remembered child-related events: High abuse risk parents seemed unable to "let go" of negative affect prompted by recall of negative events involving their children. This finding replicates and extends findings reported in prior research. However, this significant moderation effect occurred for only one event memory collection method. This methodological dependence is unusual: the FAB effect is typically impervious to methodological variations. Implications of these results, as well as suggestions for future research, are discussed.

Effect sizes and effect size benchmarks in family violence research.

Scholarly journals increasingly request that authors include effect size (ES) estimates when reporting statistical results. However, there is little guidance on how authors should interpret ESs. Consequently, some authors do not provide ES interpretations, or, when interpretations are provided, they often fail to use appropriate reference groups, using instead the ES benchmarks suggested by Cohen (1988). After discussing the most commonly used ES estimates, we describe the method used by Cohen (1962) to develop ES benchmarks (i.e., small, medium, and large) for use in power analyses and describe the limitations associated with using these benchmarks. Next, we establish general benchmarks for family violence (FV) research. That is, we followed Cohen's approach to establishing his original ES benchmarks using family violence research published in 2021 in Child Abuse & Neglect, which produced a medium ES (d = 0.354) that was smaller than Cohen's recommended medium ES (d = 0.500). Then, we examined the ESs in different subspecialty areas of FV research to provide benchmarks for contextualized FV ESs and to provide information that can be used to conduct power analyses when planning future FV research. Finally, some of the challenges to developing ES benchmarks in any scholarly discipline are discussed. For professionals who are not well informed about ESs, the present review is designed to increase their understanding of ESs and what ES benchmarks tell them (and do not tell them) with respect to understanding the meaningfulness of FV research findings.

Prolonged Infant Crying: Caregiving Quality and Child Physical Abuse Risk.

Research suggests that prolonged infant crying may increase risk for child physical abuse (CPA). However, few studies have examined behavioral responses to infant crying among parents at risk for CPA. The present study sought to fill this gap by using a simulated infant to examine how mothers and fathers with varying degrees of CPA risk respond to prolonged infant crying. Specifically, a sample of 184 general population caregivers (107 mothers and 77 fathers) participated in a task that involved attempting to soothe a simulated infant that cried continuously for 30 min. The simulated infant sessions were video-recorded, and quality of caregiving behavior was coded in 5-min segments. Participants rated their negative affect (feelings of upset, distress, irritability) at the outset of the data collection session, before beginning the simulated infant task, and after the simulated infant task concluded. It was predicted that high-risk caregivers, compared to low-risk caregivers, would display lower quality caregiving, higher levels of negative affect, and that CPA risk group differences would increase over time. Gender differences were explored in relation to the aforementioned hypotheses. Over the course of the 30-min simulated infant task, the quality of caregiving behavior diminished among both high- and low-risk caregivers. As expected, high-risk caregivers, compared to low-risk caregivers, exhibited lower quality caregiving behaviors and were more likely to discontinue the simulated infant task early. In addition, high-risk, compared to low-risk, caregivers reported higher levels of negative affect throughout the data collection session, with the highest level of negative affect reported by high-risk caregivers after completing the simulated infant task. Overall, the quality of caregiving exhibited by men and women did not significantly differ. The present findings highlight the importance of early intervention designed to support caregivers' abilities to respond effectively to prolonged infant crying.

Do High-Risk Parents Use More Aggression During Competitive Play With Children?

The present study examined the extent to which the aggressive tendencies of parents at risk for perpetrating child physical abuse (CPA) generalize to situations other than discipline-related encounters (e.g., a competitive gaming interaction). Participants included parents who were either low (n = 90) or high (n = 75) risk for CPA. Parents were led to believe that they were playing a game against a child opponent with whom they exchanged sound blasts of varying intensities. Parental sound blast selections served as a proxy for aggressive behavior. Parents were randomly assigned to high or low loss conditions. The fictitious child opponent's responses were pre-programed so that sound blasts received by parents became louder (i.e., more provocative) over time. As predicted, high CPA risk parents exhibited higher levels of aggression than low CPA risk parents. Moreover, high-risk parents reported having higher levels of aggressive motives during the game than low-risk parents; and aggressive motives explained the link between parental CPA risk and parents' aggressive behavior. With one exception, higher levels of child provocation during the game prompted parents to send higher levels of sound blasts. The exception to this pattern occurred among low-risk parents who experienced high rates of loss during the game. Specifically, low-risk parents in the high loss condition continued to send low levels of sound blasts even as their child opponent became more provocative. Aggressive motives (and the ability to change motives as situations change) may help explain differences in aggressive tendencies evinced by parents with varying levels of CPA risk.

Evaluation of a sexual assault education/prevention program for female U.S. Navy personnel.

The U.S. Navy Sexual Assault Intervention Training (SAIT) program for women was evaluated in a randomized clinical trial. The SAIT uses multiple presentation modalities (lecture, slides, discussion, film) to provide information related to sexual assault, including risk factors, consequences, prevention, and relevant military regulations. Female personnel who had completed basic training (N = 550) participated in the SAIT or a Comparison condition, and then completed measures of rape knowledge, empathy for rape victims, and acceptance of rape myths (false beliefs about rape justifying sexual violence). Results showed that the SAIT increased factual knowledge about rape. In addition, the SAIT increased empathy with rape victims in some groups of women. However, the program did not reduce women's rape myth acceptance. Given the enormity of the problem of sexual assault and these promising initial findings, additional research on the efficacy of the SAIT is clearly warranted.

Perceived Executive Functioning in Parents at Risk for Child Physical Abuse.

Research suggests that deficits in executive functioning are associated with negative parenting behaviors. However, limited research has examined the link between executive functioning and risk for child physical abuse (CPA) perpetration. Early studies examining executive functioning in parents at risk for perpetrating CPA relied on performance-based measures, which are designed to occur under carefully controlled conditions and may not capture difficulties experienced under less optimal conditions (e.g., during chaotic caregiving situations). Moreover, prior studies examining executive functioning in parents at risk for perpetrating CPA have relied on small samples comprised of only mothers. To advance our understanding of the linkage between executive functioning and CPA risk, the present study examined perceived deficits in executive functioning in a sample of general population mothers and fathers (N = 98) using a standardized self-report measure of executive functioning, namely, the adult version of the Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function (BRIEF-A). Parents were classified as low CPA risk or high CPA risk using the Child Abuse Potential Inventory. Compared with low-risk parents, high-risk parents had higher rates of clinical elevations on several BRIEF-A subscales, namely, Working Memory Problems, Emotional Control Difficulties, and Difficulties Shifting Thoughts, Feelings, and Behaviors. These findings highlight the potential importance of assessing and strengthening executive functioning in interventions designed to reduce risk of parent-to-child aggression.

Evaluation of a sexual assault education/prevention program for male U.S. Navy personnel.

A randomized clinical trial was conducted to evaluate the effectiveness of the Navy Sexual Assault Intervention Training (SAIT) program for men. A four-group Solomon design was used to control for possible pretest sensitization effects. Male Navy personnel (N = 1,505) were assessed for rape knowledge, rape myth acceptance (two scales), and rape empathy after participating in the SAIT program or viewing an educational video about HIV/AIDS (comparison condition). The SAIT program was found to be effective in increasing rape knowledge, reducing rape myth acceptance, and increasing empathy for rape victims. As expected, men who had exhibited previous coercive sexual behavior, compared with those who had not, reported lower levels of knowledge, higher levels of rape myth acceptance, and less rape empathy. However, the SAIT program was generally effective in changing men's knowledge, beliefs, and feelings on the key measures, regardless of participants' histories of coercive sexual behavior.

Exploring Positive Classical Conditioning Procedure Effects on Evaluations of Children, Thoughts About Children, and Behaviors Toward Children: Two Experiments.

Exposing parents to a positive classical conditioning (+CC) procedure can (a) prompt positive evaluations of children, (b) alter judgments made about children from their behavior, and (c) reduce harsh behaviors enacted toward children. Two studies explored possible limits of these effects. Results from Study 1 showed that only some +CC effects evinced in prior research emerged when the positive trait words used as the unconditioned stimuli in prior research were replaced with positive emojis. Results from Study 2 showed with positive trait word stimuli that a backward +CC procedure produced many of the same effects produced by the forward +CC procedure. These results collectively support the idea that +CC procedures may simultaneously prompt several different kinds of learning. From a practical perspective, consideration of these various kinds of learning is important to an understanding of when the use of the +CC procedure might reduce child abuse risk.

Hostility ratings by parents at risk for child abuse: impact of chronic and temporary schema activation.

OBJECTIVE: Two studies examined whether accessibility of hostility-related schema influenced ratings of ambiguous child pictures. Based on the social information processing model of child physical abuse (CPA), it was expected that CPA risk status would serve as a proxy for chronic accessibility of hostile schema, while priming procedures were used to manipulate temporary accessibility of hostility-related schema. METHODS: Participants included 108 parents (79 low and 29 high CPA risk) in Experiment 1 and 88 parents (43 low and 45 high CPA risk) in Experiment 2. Parents were randomly assigned to either hostile or neutral priming conditions. Following the priming procedures, all parents rated pictures that depicted children who appeared ambiguous with regard to the extent to which they were being hostile/cooperative. RESULTS: In both experiments, high, compared to low, CPA risk parents rated the ambiguous child pictures as more hostile. Further, both supraliminal (Experiment 1) and subliminal (Experiment 2) exposure to hostility-related words independently increased hostility ratings. In both experiments, the influence of chronic and temporary activation of hostile schema was additive and not interactive. CONCLUSION: Findings from these experiments are consistent with the proposition that high CPA risk parents are more likely to infer hostility in response to ambiguous child cues. Further, accessibility of hostility-related schema in parents increases the likelihood of hostile inferences, which in turn may increase attributions of hostile intent and aggressive parenting behaviors.

Parental responses to infant crying: the influence of child physical abuse risk and hostile priming.

OBJECTIVE: Managing a crying infant is a challenge universally faced by new parents. This study examined whether parental interpretations, feelings, and behaviors following exposure to a 2-minute videotaped segment of a crying infant varied as a function of child physical abuse (CPA) risk and exposure to cues of hostility (i.e., hostile priming). METHOD: Participants included 84 general population parents (52 low and 32 high CPA risk) with valid and complete protocols. It was predicted that (1) negative trait ratings, (2) feelings of hostility, and (3) ability to modulate grip strength would differ across CPA risk groups (high vs. low) and priming conditions (hostile vs. neutral). RESULTS: As expected, high, compared to low, CPA risk parents rated the crying infant more negatively and reported higher levels of hostile feelings after watching the crying infant video. Hostile priming independently increased feelings of hostility, such that high CPA risk parents who were primed with hostile words reported higher levels of hostile feelings relative to all other conditions. Hostile priming also was modestly associated with increased use of excessive force when parents attempted to produce a half-strength grip; however this difference was apparent only among high CPA risk parents. CONCLUSIONS: High, compared to low, CPA risk parents rated the crying infant more negatively and reported higher levels of hostile feelings after watching the crying infant video. Hostile priming independently increased hostile feelings and was modestly associated with use of excessive force in the hand grip task among high CPA risk parents.

Premilitary adult sexual assault victimization and perpetration in a Navy recruit sample.

Female (n = 5,226) and male (n = 5,969) U.S. Navy recruits completed a survey assessing their premilitary histories of adult sexual assault (SA), defined as attempted or completed rape since the age of 14. The survey was completed under anonymous or identified conditions. Overall, 39% of women reported premilitary SA victimization and 13% of men admitted premilitary SA perpetration. As predicted, rates were significantly higher in the anonymous than in the identified condition. For the sample of women as a whole, marital status, ethnicity, and family income were associated with SA victimization; for men, only marital status was associated with SA perpetration. Compared to previous college samples, Navy recruits were more likely to have previous SA experience. Given the negative consequences associated with SA victimization and perpetration, the present study reinforces the desirability of developing additional treatment, education, and prevention programs to reduce the occurrence of SA among military recruits.

Do emotion regulation difficulties explain the association between executive functions and child physical abuse risk?

This study examined the associations between executive functioning problems, emotion regulation difficulties, and risk for perpetrating child physical abuse (CPA). It was hypothesized that: (a) poor executive functions (i.e., working memory problems and inhibition/switching problems) would be associated with higher levels of emotion regulation difficulties and CPA risk; (b) emotion regulation difficulties would be positively associated with CPA risk; and (c) emotion regulation difficulties would partially explain the association between executive functions (i.e., working memory problems and inhibition/switching problems) and CPA risk. To examine these predictions, a sample of 133 general population parents (31% fathers) completed self-report measures of CPA risk, emotion regulation difficulties, working memory problems, and a performance-based measure of inhibition/switching skills. Results revealed that executive functioning problems were linked with emotion regulation difficulties, which in turn were associated with CPA risk. Moreover, emotion regulation difficulties explained the relationship between executive functions (working memory, inhibition/switching) and CPA risk. The final model accounted for 41% of the variance in CPA risk. Although additional research is needed, the present findings suggest that enhancing parents' executive functioning and teaching them effective emotion regulation skills may be important targets for CPA prevention efforts.

Heart Rate and Heart Rate Variability in Parents at Risk for Child Physical Abuse.

The present study examined heart rate and heart rate variability (i.e., respiratory sinus arrhythmia [RSA]) in a sample of 48 general population parents (41.7% fathers), who were either at high risk (n = 24) or low risk (n = 24) for child physical abuse. During baseline assessments of heart rate and RSA, parents sat quietly for 3 min. Afterward, parents were presented with a series of anagrams (either easy or difficult) and were instructed to solve as many anagrams as possible in 3 min. As expected, high-risk (compared with low-risk) parents evinced significantly higher resting heart rate and significantly lower resting RSA. During the anagram task, high-risk parents did not evince significant changes in heart rate or RSA relative to baseline levels. In contrast, low-risk parents evinced significant increases in heart rate and significant decreases in RSA during the anagram task. Contrary to expectations, the anagram task difficulty did not moderate the study findings. Collectively, this pattern of results is consistent with the notion that high-risk parents have chronically higher levels of physiological arousal relative to low-risk parents and exhibit less physiological flexibility in response to environmental demands. High-risk parents may benefit from interventions that include components that reduce physiological arousal and increase the capacity to regulate arousal effectively.

Premilitary sexual assault and attrition in the U.S. Navy.

A prospective study examined whether adult premilitary sexual victimization predicted women's military attrition. In a survey of female Navy recruits (N = 2,431), 56% reported some form of adult unwanted sexual contact before entering the military, with 25% reporting completed rape. Approximately one-third of respondents left the Navy before completing their 4-year term of service. When rape, attempted rape, and lower-level unwanted sexual contact were considered simultaneously, only rape predicted attrition. Women who reported premilitary rape, compared with those who did not, were 1.69 times more likely to leave the military. The pattern of results held across the 4-year period examined and after controlling for demographic predictors.

Parents' spontaneous evaluations of children and symbolic harmful behaviors toward their child.

Parents' evaluations of children are believed to be a cognitive contributor to their subsequent child-directed harsh or physically abusive behaviors. The current research examined whether parents' (N=100) evaluations of children were moderated by either (a) the child behavior on which the evaluation was based and (b) parents' measured risk for child physical abuse. The study also explored whether parents' evaluations of children were related to their tendencies to symbolically harm their child. The current study also used a novel method to indirectly assess parents' evaluations of children: A modified Affect Misattribution Procedure. Contrary to a priori expectations, negative evaluations of children were stronger for parents who were at low risk, relative to high risk, for child physical abuse. Nonetheless, we observed that high-risk parents were more likely than low-risk parents to inflict symbolic harm onto their child. In an exploratory analysis we observed that parents who formed more overall negative evaluations of children engaged in more symbolic harm to their child. Although high-risk parents were more likely to symbolically harm their child than low-risk parents, this effect does not seem to be due to high-risk parents' negative child evaluations from negative child behaviors.

Do hostile attributions and negative affect explain the association between authoritarian beliefs and harsh parenting?

The present study examined the associations between authoritarian parenting beliefs, attributions of hostile intent, negative affect, and harsh parenting practices. General population parents (N=183; 31.1% fathers) completed self-report measures of authoritarian parenting beliefs and read vignettes describing children engaging in transgressions. Following each vignette, parents indicated the extent to which they would attribute hostile intent to the child, feel negative affect, and respond with harsh parenting practices (e.g., yelling, hitting). As hypothesized, parents who subscribed to higher levels of authoritarian beliefs attributed more hostile intent to the child and expected to feel more negative affect in response to the transgressions. In turn, higher levels of hostile attributions and negative affect were associated with increased likelihood of harsh parenting practices. Results from a path analysis revealed that the association between authoritarian parenting beliefs and harsh parenting practices was fully explained by attributions of hostile intent and negative affect.

Premilitary intimate partner violence and attrition from the U.S. Navy.

A prospective study of U.S. Navy recruits (N = 5,498) examined whether premilitary intimate partner violence (IPV) was associated with attrition. Overall, more than one-fourth of recruits reported premilitary physical IPV and more than two-thirds reported premilitary verbal IPV. Women reported more perpetration and receipt of IPV than men, and married or cohabiting respondents reported more IPV than single respondents. Both perpetration and receipt of IPV significantly predicted attrition within 4 years. However, after controlling for other forms of IPV, only receipt of physical IPV significantly predicted attrition. In only one analysis did associations between IPV and attrition vary according to marital status or gender; premilitary receipt of verbal IPV had different effects on women and men.

Borderline personality features and emotion regulation deficits are associated with child physical abuse potential.

The present study extends prior research examining the association between borderline personality disorder (BPD) features and child physical abuse (CPA) risk. We hypothesized that: (1) high CPA risk parents (compared to low CPA risk parents) would more often report clinically elevated levels of BPD features; (2) high CPA risk parents with elevated BPD features would represent a particularly high-risk subgroup; and (3) the association between elevated BPD features and CPA risk would be partially explained by emotion regulation difficulties. General population parents (N=106; 41.5% fathers) completed self-report measures of BPD features, CPA risk, and emotion regulation difficulties. Results support the prediction that BPD features are more prevalent among high (compared to low) CPA risk parents. Among the parents classified as high CPA risk (n=45), one out of three (33.3%) had elevated BPD features. In contrast, none of the 61 low CPA risk parents reported elevated BPD symptoms. Moreover, 100% of the parents with elevated BPD features (n=15) were classified as high-risk for CPA. As expected, high CPA risk parents with elevated BPD features (compared to high CPA risk parents with low BPD features) obtained significantly higher scores on several Child Abuse Potential Inventory scales, including the overall abuse scale (d=1.03). As predicted, emotion regulation difficulties partially explained the association between BPD features and CPA risk. Findings from the present study suggest that a subset of high CPA risk parents in the general population possess clinically significant levels of BPD symptoms and these parents represent an especially high-risk subgroup. Interventions designed to address BPD symptoms, including emotion regulation difficulties, appear to be warranted in these cases.