Feedback regulation of the MBF transcription factor by cyclin Cig2.

The Mlu1-binding factor (MBF) from the fission yeast Schizosaccharomyces pombe contains the proteins Res1p and Res2p and binds to the Mlu1 cell-cycle box (MCB) element in DNA, activating the transcription of genes required for S phase. We report here that the cell-cycle-regulated expression of the cyclin cig2 gene is dependent on MBF. Deletion of MCB elements in the cig2 promoter perturbed the expression not only of cig2 but also of other MBF-dependent genes, indicating that Cig2p could regulate MBF activity. Cig2p can bind to Res2p, promote the phosphorylation of Res1p and inhibit MBF-dependent gene transcription. Cig2p thus forms an autoregulating feedback-inhibition loop with MBF which is important for normal regulation of the cell cycle.

Binding of the von Hippel-Lindau tumor suppressor protein to Elongin B and C.

Germ-line mutations of the von Hippel-Lindau tumor suppressor gene (VHL) predispose individuals to a variety of human tumors, and somatic mutations of this gene have been identified in sporadic renal cell carcinomas and cerebellar hemangioblastomas. Two transcriptional elongation factors, Elongin B and C, were shown to bind in vitro and in vivo to a short, colinear region of the VHL protein (pVHL) that is frequently mutated in human tumors. A peptide replica of this region inhibited binding of pVHL to Elongin B and C whereas a point-mutant derivative, corresponding to a naturally occurring VHL missense mutation, had no effect. These results suggest that the tumor suppression function of pVHL may be linked to its ability to bind to Elongin B and C.

Role of pRb-related proteins in simian virus 40 large-T-antigen-mediated transformation.

Simian virus 40 large T-antigen (TAg) transformation is thought to be mediated, at least in part, by binding to and modulating the function of certain cellular proteins, including the retinoblastoma tumor suppressor gene product, pRb. TAg can disrupt the inhibitory complexes formed by pRb with the oncogenic transcription factor E2F, and this mechanism has been suggested to be important for TAg-mediated transformation. Residues 102 to 114 of TAg (including the LXCXE motif) are required for binding to pRb. Mutations within this LXCXE motif abolish the ability of TAg to bind to pRb as well as to transform certain cell types. TAg can also bind to at least two other cellular proteins, p107 and p130, that are related to pRb by sequence homology and share the ability to bind E2F. However, whether p107 and p130 are also targets in TAg-mediated transformation is less clear. To assess the relative contribution of the inactivation of pRb, p107, and p130 to transformation by TAg, fibroblasts were prepared from embryos derived from matings of mice heterozygous for an Rb knockout allele. The ability of TAg to transform fibroblasts homozygous for either wild-type or knockout Rb alleles was evaluated. It is demonstrated that the integrity of the LXCXE motif provides a growth advantage in Rb+/+ and Rb-/- cells. Furthermore, wild-type TAg, but not the LXCXE mutants, could bind to p107 and p130 and disrupt p107-E2F and p130-E2F binding complexes. These results suggest that p107 and p130 participate in TAg-mediated transformation and that they may behave as tumor suppressors.

The J domain of simian virus 40 large T antigen is required to functionally inactivate RB family proteins.

Transformation by simian virus 40 large T antigen (TAg) is dependent on the inactivation of cellular tumor suppressors. Transformation minimally requires the following three domains: (i) a C-terminal domain that mediates binding to p53; (ii) the LXCXE domain (residues 103 to 107), necessary for binding to the retinoblastoma tumor suppressor protein, pRB, and the related p107 and p130; and (iii) an N-terminal domain that is homologous to the J domain of DnaJ molecular chaperone proteins. We have previously demonstrated that the N-terminal J domain of TAg affects the RB-related proteins by perturbing the phosphorylation status of p107 and p130 and promoting the degradation of p130 and that this domain is required for transformation of cells that express either p107 or p130. In this work, we demonstrate that the J domain of TAg is required to inactivate the ability of each member of the pRB family to induce a G1 arrest in Saos-2 cells. Furthermore, the J domain is required to override the repression of E2F activity mediated by p130 and pRB and to disrupt p130-E2F DNA binding complexes. These results imply that while the LXCXE domain serves as a binding site for the RB-related proteins, the J domain plays an important role in inactivating their function.

Loss of p19(ARF) eliminates the requirement for the pRB-binding motif in simian virus 40 large T antigen-mediated transformation.

At least three domains of simian virus 40 large T antigen (TAg) participate in cellular transformation. The LXCXE motif of TAg binds to all members of the retinoblastoma protein (pRB) family of tumor suppressors. The N-terminal 70 residues of TAg have significant homology to the J domain of Hsp40/DnaJ and cooperate with the LXCXE motif to inactivate the pRB family. A bipartite C-terminal domain of TAg binds to p53 and thereby disrupts the ability of p53 to act as a sequence-specific transcription factor. The contribution of these three domains of TAg to cellular transformation was evaluated in cells that contained inactivating mutations in the pRB and p53 pathways. Cells that stably expressed wild-type or selected mutant forms of TAg were generated in mouse embryo fibroblasts (MEFs) containing homozygous deletions in the RB, INK4a, and ARF loci. It was determined that the J domain, the LXCXE motif, and the p53-binding domain of TAg were required for full transformation of wild-type and RB(-/-) MEFs. In contrast, INK4a(-/-) MEFs that lacked expression of p16(INK4a) and p19(ARF) and ARF(-/-) MEFs that lacked p19(ARF) but expressed p16(INK4a) acquired anchorage-independent growth when expressing wild-type TAg or mutant derivatives that disrupted either the pRB-binding or p53-binding domain. The expression and function of the pRB family members were not overly disrupted in ARF(-/-) MEFs expressing LXCXE mutants of TAg. These results suggest that inactivating mutations of p19(ARF) can relieve the requirement for the LXCXE motif in TAg-mediated transformation and that TAg may have additional functions in transformation.

Cell cycle analysis of E2F in primary human T cells reveals novel E2F complexes and biochemically distinct forms of free E2F.

The transcription factor E2F activates the expression of multiple genes involved in cell proliferation, such as c-myc and the dihydrofolate reductase gene. Regulation of E2F involves its interactions with other cellular proteins, including the retinoblastoma protein (Rb), the Rb-related protein p107, cyclin A, and cdk2. We undertook a detailed analysis of E2F DNA-binding activities and their cell cycle behavior in primary human T cells. Three E2F DNA-binding activities were identified in resting (G0) T cells with mobilities in gel shift assays distinct from those of previously defined E2F complexes. One of these activities was found to be a novel, less abundant, Rb-E2F complex. The most prominent E2F activity in resting T cells (termed complex X) was abundant in both G0 and G1 but disappeared as cells entered S phase, suggesting a possible role in negatively regulating E2F function. Complex X could be dissociated by adenovirus E1A with a requirement for an intact E1A conserved region 2. However, X failed to react with a variety of antibodies against Rb or p107, implicating the involvement of an E1A-binding protein other than Rb or p107. In addition to these novel E2F complexes, three distinct forms of unbound (free) E2F were resolved in gel shift experiments. These species showed different cell cycle kinetics. UV cross-linking experiments suggested that a distinct E2F DNA-binding protein is uniquely associated with the S-phase p107 complex and is not associated with Rb. Together, these results suggest that E2F consists of multiple, biochemically distinct DNA-binding proteins which function at different points in the cell cycle.

The fission yeast protein p73res2 is an essential component of the mitotic MBF complex and a master regulator of meiosis.

Depending on environmental conditions, Schizosaccharomyces pombe can remain in the stationary phase or enter into either premitotic or premeiotic DNA synthesis. This decision point is known as Start. In the mitotic cell cycle, regulation of G1/S-specific gene expression is dependent upon the MBF (Mlu1 binding factor) complex, known to contain p85cdc10 and p72res1. Here we demonstrate that p73res2 controls cell cycle progression via its participation in the MBF complex, interacting directly with both p85cdc10 and p72res1. In contrast, when cells enter into meiosis, the MBF complex is disrupted, and p73res2 shifts its regulatory function towards the transactivation of genes required for meiotic progression. These observations suggest that p73res2 plays a pivotal role at Start and constitutes an example of a transcription factor involved in the control of both mitotic and meiotic progression.

Cytoplasmic localization of human cdc25C during interphase requires an intact 14-3-3 binding site.

cdc25C induces mitosis by activating the cdc2-cyclin B complex. The intracellular localization of cyclin B1 is regulated in a cell cycle-specific manner, and its entry into the nucleus may be required for the initiation of mitosis. To determine the cellular localization of cdc25C, monoclonal antibodies specific for cdc25C were developed and used to demonstrate that in human cells, cdc25C is retained in the cytoplasm during interphase. A deletion analysis identified a 58-amino-acid region (amino acids 201 to 258) in cdc25C that was required for the cytoplasmic localization of cdc25C. This region contained a specific binding site for 14-3-3 proteins, and mutations in cdc25C that disrupted 14-3-3 binding also disrupted the cytoplasmic localization of cdc25C during interphase. cdc25C proteins that do not contain a binding site for 14-3-3 proteins showed a pancellular localization and an increased ability to induce premature chromosome condensation. The cytoplasmic localization of cdc25C was not altered by gamma irradiation or treatment with the nuclear export inhibitor leptomycin B. These results suggest that 14-3-3 proteins may negatively regulate cdc25C function by sequestering cdc25C in the cytoplasm.

Control of junB and extracellular matrix protein expression by transforming growth factor-beta 1 is independent of simian virus 40 T antigen-sensitive growth-sensitive growth-inhibitory events.

Treatment of Mv1Lu mink lung epithelial cells with transforming growth factor-beta 1 (TGF-beta 1) prevents phosphorylation of the retinoblastoma susceptibility gene product, RB, in late G1 phase of the cell cycle, which is thought to retain RB in a growth-suppressive state. This effect is paralleled by cell cycle arrest in late G1 (M. Laiho, J. A. DeCapric, J. W. Ludlow, D. M. Livingston, and J. Massagué, Cell 62:175-185, 1990). Arrest can be prevented by expression of simian virus 40 T antigen, which binds to underphosphorylated RB, presumably blocking its growth-suppressive activity. The response of cells to TGF-beta 1, however, is complex and includes changes in the levels of expression of genes encoding nuclear transcription factors and extracellular matrix components. To define the relationships among various components of the TGF-beta 1 response, we have investigated the effect of TGF-beta 1 on cells whose growth-inhibitory response to this factor is prevented by T antigen. TGF-beta 1 addition to exponentially growing Mv1Lu cells increased the levels of junB mRNA and of three extracellular matrix proteins: plasminogen activator inhibitor-1, fibronectin, and thrombospondin. Kinetically, the effects on junB and plasminogen activator inhibitor-1 expression occurred faster (half-maximal at 1 to 2 h) than the effects on fibronectin and thrombospondin expression (half-maximal at 6 to 10 h). These effects either preceded or overlapped, respectively, the withdrawal of Mv1Lu cells from the cell cycle. Expression of a transfected T-antigen gene in Mv1Lu cells, however, did not prevent any of these responses to TGF-beta 1. The results indcate that TGF-B1-stimulated expression of junB and extracellular matrix proteins in Mv1Lu cells can occur independently of the T-antigen-sensitive events that lead to growth arrest.

The Schizosaccharomyces pombe MBF complex requires heterodimerization for entry into S phase.

In Schizosaccharomyces pombe, MBF is a DNA-binding complex suspected to activate the transcription of genes necessary for entry into S phase. The MBF complex contains both p85cdc10 and p72res1/sct1. To obtain a better understanding of how the MBF complex regulates gene expression at the G1/S transition, we have performed a genetic analysis of p72res1. We determined that p72res1 can bind specifically to the cdc22 promoter, when analyzed by gel mobility shift assay, and that the N-terminal 157 amino acids of p72res1 are sufficient for this specific binding. When overexpressed in vivo, a fragment of p72res1 containing this DNA-binding domain could rescue a strain carrying a temperature-sensitive cdc10 allele at the restrictive temperature as well as a strain with a cdc10 null allele. We also determined that the C-terminal region of p72res1 is necessary and sufficient for binding to p85cdc10. Overexpression of the cdc10-binding domain of p72res1 leads to a G1 arrest with a cdc phenotype and a decrease on MBF activity. Overexpression of full-length p72res1 also leads to a growth arrest that can be rescued by overexpression of p85cdc10. These results imply that the MBF activity in vivo is dependent on the interaction of p85cdc10 with p72res1.

Inactivation of pRB-related proteins p130 and p107 mediated by the J domain of simian virus 40 large T antigen.

Inactivation of the retinoblastoma tumor suppressor protein (pRB) contributes to tumorigenesis in a wide variety of cancers. In contrast, the role of the two pRB-related proteins, p130 and p107, in oncogenic transformation is unclear. The LXCXE domain of simian virus 40 large T antigen (TAg) specifically binds to pRB, p107, and p130. We have previously shown that the N terminus and the LXCXE domain of TAg cooperate to alter the phosphorylation state of p130 and p107. Here, we demonstrate that TAg promotes the degradation of p130 and that the N terminus of TAg is required for this activity. The N terminus of TAg has homology to the J domain of the DnaJ family of molecular chaperone proteins. Mutants with mutations in the J-domain homology region of TAg are defective for altering p130 and p107 phosphorylation and for p130 degradation. A heterologous J-domain from a human DnaJ protein can functionally substitute for the N terminus of TAg in the effect on p107 and p130 phosphorylation and p130 stability. We further demonstrate that the J-domain homology region of TAg confers a growth advantage to wild-type mouse embryo fibroblasts (MEFs) but is dispensable in the case of MEFs lacking both p130 and p107. This indicates that p107 and p130 have overlapping growth-suppressing activities whose inactivation is mediated by the J domain of TAg.

Viral oncoproteins discriminate between p53 and the p53 homolog p73.

p73 is a recently identified member of the p53 family. Previously it was shown that p73 can, when overproduced in p53-defective tumor cells, activate p53-responsive promoters and induce apoptosis. In this report we describe the generation of anti-p73 monoclonal antibodies and confirm that two previously described p73 isoforms are produced in mammalian cells. Furthermore, we show that these two isoforms can bind to canonical p53 DNA-binding sites in electrophoretic mobility shift assays. Despite the high degree of similarity between p53 and p73, we found that adenovirus E1B 55K, simian virus 40 T, and human papillomavirus E6 do not physically interact with p73. The observation that viral oncoproteins discriminate between p53 and p73 suggests that the functions of these two proteins may differ under physiological conditions. Furthermore, they suggest that inactivation of p73 may not be required for transformation.

Cells degrade a novel inhibitor of differentiation with E1A-like properties upon exiting the cell cycle.

Control of proliferation and differentiation by the retinoblastoma tumor suppressor protein (pRB) and related family members depends upon their interactions with key cellular substrates. Efforts to identify such cellular targets led to the isolation of a novel protein, EID-1 (for E1A-like inhibitor of differentiation 1). Here, we show that EID-1 is a potent inhibitor of differentiation and link this activity to its ability to inhibit p300 (and the highly related molecule, CREB-binding protein, or CBP) histone acetylation activity. EID-1 is rapidly degraded by the proteasome as cells exit the cell cycle. Ubiquitination of EID-1 requires an intact C-terminal region that is also necessary for stable binding to p300 and pRB, two proteins that bind to the ubiquitin ligase MDM2. A pRB variant that can bind to EID1, but not MDM2, stabilizes EID-1 in cells. Thus, EID-1 may act at a nodal point that couples cell cycle exit to the transcriptional activation of genes required for differentiation.

Association of p300 and CBP with simian virus 40 large T antigen.

p300 and the CREB-binding protein CBP are two large nuclear phosphoproteins that are structurally highly related. Both function, in part, as transcriptional adapters and are targeted by the adenovirus E1A oncoprotein. We show here that p300 and CBP interact with another transforming protein, the simian virus 40 large T antigen (T). This interaction depends on the integrity of a region of T which is critical for its transforming and mitogenic properties and includes its LXCXE Rb-binding motif. T interferes with normal p300 and CBP function on at least two different levels. The presence of T alters the phosphorylation states of both proteins and inhibits their transcriptional activities on certain promoters. Although E1A and T show little sequence similarity, they interact with the same domain of p300 and CBP, suggesting that this region exhibits considerable flexibility in accommodating diverse protein ligands.

Bcl-2 retards cell cycle entry through p27(Kip1), pRB relative p130, and altered E2F regulation.

Independent of its antiapoptotic function, Bcl-2 can, through an undetermined mechanism, retard entry into the cell cycle. Cell cycle progression requires the phosphorylation by cyclin-dependent kinases (Cdks) of retinoblastoma protein (pRB) family members to free E2F transcription factors. We have explored whether retarded cycle entry is mediated by the Cdk inhibitor p27 or the pRB family. In quiescent fibroblasts, enforced Bcl-2 expression elevated levels of both p27 and the pRB relative p130. Bcl-2 still slowed G(1) progression in cells deficient in pRB but not in those lacking p27 or p130. Hence, pRB is not required, but both p27 and p130 are essential mediators. The ability of p130 to form repressive complexes with E2F4 is implicated, because the retardation by Bcl-2 was accentuated by coexpressed E2F4. A plausible relevant target of p130/E2F4 is the E2F1 gene, because Bcl-2 expression delayed E2F1 accumulation during G(1) progression and overexpression of E2F1 overrode the Bcl-2 inhibition. Hence, Bcl-2 appears to retard cell cycle entry by increasing p27 and p130 levels and maintaining repressive complexes of p130 with E2F4, perhaps to delay E2F1 expression.

RBP1 recruits both histone deacetylase-dependent and -independent repression activities to retinoblastoma family proteins.

Retinoblastoma (RB) tumor suppressor family proteins block cell proliferation in part by repressing certain E2F-specific promoters. Both histone deacetylase (HDAC)-dependent and -independent repression activities are associated with the RB "pocket." The mechanism by which these two repression functions occupy the pocket is unknown. A known RB-binding protein, RBP1, was previously found by our group to be an active corepressor which, if overexpressed, represses E2F-mediated transcription via its association with the pocket. We show here that RBP1 contains two repression domains, one of which binds all three known HDACs and represses them in an HDAC-dependent manner while the other domain functions independently of the HDACs. Thus, RB family members repress transcription by recruiting RBP1 to the pocket. RBP1, in turn, serves as a bridging molecule to recruit HDACs and, in addition, provides a second HDAC-independent repression function.

HIRA, the human homologue of yeast Hir1p and Hir2p, is a novel cyclin-cdk2 substrate whose expression blocks S-phase progression.

Substrates of cyclin-cdk2 kinases contain two distinct primary sequence motifs: a cyclin-binding RXL motif and one or more phosphoacceptor sites (consensus S/TPXK/R or S/TP). To identify novel cyclin-cdk2 substrates, we searched the database for proteins containing both of these motifs. One such protein is human HIRA, the homologue of two cell cycle-regulated repressors of histone gene expression in Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Hir1p and Hir2p. Here we demonstrate that human HIRA is an in vivo substrate of a cyclin-cdk2 kinase. First, HIRA bound to and was phosphorylated by cyclin A- and E-cdk2 in vitro in an RXL-dependent manner. Second, HIRA was phosphorylated in vivo on two consensus cyclin-cdk2 phosphoacceptor sites and at least one of these, threonine 555, was phosphorylated by cyclin A-cdk2 in vitro. Third, phosphorylation of HIRA in vivo was blocked by cyclin-cdk2 inhibitor p21(cip1). Fourth, HIRA became phosphorylated on threonine 555 in S phase when cyclin-cdk2 kinases are active. Fifth, HIRA was localized preferentially to the nucleus, where active cyclin A- and E-cdk2 are located. Finally, ectopic expression of HIRA in cells caused arrest in S phase and this is consistent with the notion that it is a cyclin-cdk2 substrate that has a role in control of the cell cycle.

Functional interaction between retinoblastoma protein and stress-activated protein kinase in multiple myeloma cells.

Previous studies have demonstrated that gamma-irradiation (IR)-induced apoptosis in multiple myeloma (MM) is associated with activation of stress-activated protein kinase (SAPK). In the present study, we examined the molecules downstream of SAPK/C-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK), focusing on the role of retinoblastoma protein (Rb) during IR-induced MM cell apoptosis. The results demonstrate that IR activates SAPK/JNK, which associates with Rb both in vivo and in vitro. Far Western blot analysis confirms that SAPK/JNK binds directly to Rb. IR-activated SAPK/JNK phosphorylates Rb, and deletion of the phosphorylation site in the COOH terminus domain of Rb abrogates phosphorylation of Rb by SAPK/JNK. Taken together, our results suggest that Rb is a target protein of SAPK/JNK and that the association of SAPK/JNK and Rb mediates IR-induced apoptosis in MM cells.

Calcineurin regulation of the mammalian G0/G1 checkpoint element, cyclin dependent kinase 4.

Cyclin dependent kinase 4 (cdk4) activity is controlled by the binding of regulatory subunits and inhibitory factors, as well as tyrosine and serine/threonine phosphorylation. More recently the influence of calcium levels have been demonstrated. Using transient transfections in Jurkat cells, we observed specific binding between cdk4 and the calcium and calmodulin activated serine/threonine phosphatase, calcineurin. Furthermore, we demonstrated that the inhibition of the phosphatase activity of calcineurin with FK506 and cyclosporin A resulted in an overall increase in cdk4 kinase activity, suggesting that the phosphatase activity of calcineurin was inhibitory to the kinase activity of cdk4. In contrast, we were not able to observe a similar effect on the kinase activity of either cdk6 or cdk2, indicating that the phosphatase activity of calcineurin was specific for cdk4. In addition, using an in vitro phosphatase assay for calcineurin, we observed that the exogenous addition of calcineurin resulted in the dephosphorylation of cdk4, an event that downregulated the kinase activity of cdk4. Calcineurin could, therefore, play an opposing role to the action of the cyclin activating kinase complex, an enzyme that upregulates the kinase activity of cdk4, an important G0/G1 checkpoint element in mammalian cells. Oncogene (2000) 19, 2820 - 2827

Phosphorylation of the retinoblastoma-related protein p130 in growth-arrested cells.

The retinoblastoma family of proteins including pRB, p107 and p130 undergoes cell cycle dependent phosphorylation during the mid-G1 to S phase transition. This phosphorylation is dependent upon the activity of cyclin D/cdk4. In contrast to pRB and p107, p130 is phosphorylated during G0 and the early G1 phase of the cell cycle. We observed that p130 is specifically phosphorylated on serine and threonine residues in T98G cells arrested in G0 by serum deprivation or density arrest. Identification of the phospho-serine and phospho-threonine residues revealed that most were clustered within a short co-linear region unique to p130, defined as the Loop. Deletion of the Loop region resulted in a change in the phosphorylation status of p130 under growth arrest conditions. Notably, deletion of the Loop did not affect the ability of p130 to bind to E2F-4 or SV40 Large T antigen, to induce growth arrest in Saos-2 cells, and to become hyperphosphorylated during the proliferative phase of the cell cycle. p130 undergoes specific G0 phosphorylation in a manner that distinguishes it from pRB and p107.