Upregulation of the clpB gene in response to heat shock and beta-lactam antibiotics in Acinetobacter baumannii.

The role of the clpB gene encoding HSP/chaperone ClpB was evaluated in the multiresistant antibiotic cells of Acinetobacter baumannii (RS4 strain) under stress-induced heat shock and different beta-lactams. The expression of the clpB gene was assessed by qPCR during heat shock at 45 °C and subinhibitory concentrations of ampicillin (30 µg mL-1), amoxicillin + sulbactam (8/12 µg mL-1), cefepime (30 µg mL-1), sulfamethoxazole + trimethoprim (120/8 µg mL-1) and meropenem (18 µg mL-1). The results indicated a transient increase in clpB transcription in all treatments except cefepime. Both in the presence of ampicillin and amoxicillin/sulbactam for 20 min, the mRNA-clpB synthesis was 1.4 times higher than that of the control at time zero. Surprisingly, the mRNA-clpB levels were more than 30-fold higher after 10 min of incubation with meropenem and more than eightfold higher in the presence of trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole. In addition, western blot assays showed that the RS4 strain treated with meropenem showed a marked increase in ClpB protein expression. Our data indicate that during exposure to beta-lactams, A. baumannii adjusts the transcription levels of the clpB mRNA and protein to respond to stress, suggesting that the chaperone may act as a key cellular component in the presence of antibiotics in this bacterium.

Research Progress Concerning Fungal and Bacterial ß-Xylosidases.

In the present review, we briefly summarize the biotechnological applications of microbial ß-xylosidases in the processing of agro-industrial residues into fuels and chemicals and report the importance of using immobilization techniques to study the enzyme. The advantages of utilizing genes that encode ß-xylosidases are readily apparent in the bioconversion of abundant, inexpensive, and renewable resources into economically important products, such as xylitol and bioethanol. We highlight recent research characterizing fungal and bacterial ß-xylosidases, including the use of classical biochemical methods such as purification, heterologous recombinant protein expression, and metagenomic approaches to discovery ß-xylosidases, with focus on enzyme molecular and kinetic properties. In addition, we discuss the relevance of using experimental design optimization methodologies to increase the efficacy of these enzymes for use with residual biomass. Finally, we emphasize more extensively the advances in the regulatory mechanisms governing ß-xylosidase gene expression and xylose metabolism in gram-negative and gram-positive bacteria and fungi. Unlike previous reviews, this revision covers recent research concerning the various features of bacterial and fungal ß-xylosidases with a greater emphasis on their biochemical characteristics and how the genes that encode these enzymes can be better exploited to obtain products of biotechnological interest via the application of different technical approaches.