Enhancing motor imagery practice using synchronous action observation.

In this paper, we discuss a variety of ways in which practising motor actions by means of motor imagery (MI) can be enhanced via synchronous action observation (AO), that is, by AO + MI. We review the available research on the (mostly facilitatory) behavioural effects of AO + MI practice in the early stages of skill acquisition, discuss possible theoretical explanations, and consider several issues related to the choice and presentation schedules of suitable models. We then discuss considerations related to AO + MI practice at advanced skill levels, including expertise effects, practical recommendations such as focussing attention on specific aspects of the observed action, using just-ahead models, and possible effects of the perspective in which the observed action is presented. In section "Coordinative AO + MI", we consider scenarios where the observer imagines performing an action that complements or responds to the observed action, as a promising and yet under-researched application of AO + MI training. In section "The dual action simulation hypothesis of AO + MI", we review the neurocognitive hypothesis that AO + MI practice involves two parallel action simulations, and we consider opportunities for future research based on recent neuroimaging work on parallel motor representations. In section "AO + MI training in motor rehabilitation", we review applications of AO, MI, and AO + MI training in the field of neurorehabilitation. Taken together, this evidence-based, exploratory review opens a variety of avenues for future research and applications of AO + MI practice, highlighting several clear advantages over the approaches of purely AO- or MI-based practice.

Guidelines for reporting action simulation studies (GRASS): Proposals to improve reporting of research in motor imagery and action observation.

Researchers from multiple disciplines have studied the simulation of actions through motor imagery, action observation, or their combination. Procedures used in these studies vary considerably between research groups, and no standardized approach to reporting experimental protocols has been proposed. This has led to under-reporting of critical details, impairing the assessment, replication, synthesis, and potential clinical translation of effects. We provide an overview of issues related to the reporting of information in action simulation studies, and discuss the benefits of standardized reporting. We propose a series of checklists that identify key details of research protocols to include when reporting action simulation studies. Each checklist comprises A) essential methodological details, B) essential details that are relevant to a specific mode of action simulation, and C) further points that may be useful on a case-by-case basis. We anticipate that the use of these guidelines will improve the understanding, reproduction, and synthesis of studies using action simulation, and enhance the translation of research using motor imagery and action observation to applied and clinical settings.

A neural signature for combined action observation and motor imagery? An fNIRS study into prefrontal activation, automatic imitation, and self-other perceptions.

INTRODUCTION: Research indicates that both observed and imagined actions can be represented in the brain as two parallel sensorimotor representations. One proposal is that higher order cognitive processes would align these two hypothetical action simulations. METHODS: We investigated this hypothesis using an automatic imitation paradigm, with functional near-infrared spectroscopy recordings over the prefrontal cortex during different motor simulation states. On each trial, participants (n = 14) observed a picture of a rhythmical action (instructed action) followed by a distractor movie showing the same or different action. Participants then executed the instructed action. Distractor actions were manipulated to be fast or slow, and instructions were manipulated during distractor presentation: action observation (AO), combined action observation and motor imagery (AO+MI) and observe to imitate (intentional imitation). A pure motor imagery (MI) condition was also included. RESULTS: Kinematic analyses showed that although distractor speed effects were significant under all instructions (shorter mean cycle times in execution for fast compared to slow trials), this imitation bias was significantly stronger for combined AO+MI than both AO and MI, and stronger for intentional imitation than the other three automatic imitation conditions. In the left prefrontal cortex, cerebral oxygenation was significantly greater for combined AO+MI than all other instructions. Participants reported that their representation of the self overlapped with the observed model significantly more during AO+MI than AO. CONCLUSION: Left prefrontal activation may therefore be a neural signature of AO+MI, supporting attentional switching between concurrent representations of self (MI, top-down) and other (AO, bottom-up) to increase imitation and perceived closeness.

A multi-lab test of the facial feedback hypothesis by the Many Smiles Collaboration.

Following theories of emotional embodiment, the facial feedback hypothesis suggests that individuals' subjective experiences of emotion are influenced by their facial expressions. However, evidence for this hypothesis has been mixed. We thus formed a global adversarial collaboration and carried out a preregistered, multicentre study designed to specify and test the conditions that should most reliably produce facial feedback effects. Data from n = 3,878 participants spanning 19 countries indicated that a facial mimicry and voluntary facial action task could both amplify and initiate feelings of happiness. However, evidence of facial feedback effects was less conclusive when facial feedback was manipulated unobtrusively via a pen-in-mouth task.

The Effects of Textured Insoles on Cortical Activity and Quiet Bipedal Standing With and Without Vision: An EEG Study.

Wearing textured insoles (TIs) can reduce static postural sway, but the neurophysiological mechanisms by which these changes occur are not well understood. To address this issue, cortical activity was investigated in this study using electroencephalography (EEG) recordings from 19 scalp locations, in 15 healthy young adults (5 females; mean age = 27 ± 4.09 years) during quiet bipedal standing, under different insole conditions (textured versus smooth), with and without vision. Compared to smooth insoles (SIs), TIs significantly reduced postural sway in two measures; anterior-posterior range and standard deviation. In the EEG data, whole-head analyses showed cortical activity in the upper alpha power band was significantly reduced for textured compared to SIs. Exploratory analyses revealed this effect was significant both with and without vision, and was more pronounced over the parietal, compared to central regions, and over central compared to frontal regions. This trend was observed in low alpha and theta bands, but the effect of insole type was not significant. Textured insoles thus appear to affect not only balance outcomes but also cortical activity. The cortical activity adaptation may represent greater information becoming readily available at the cortical level, enhancing the representation of the body in space.

Neurophysiological markers discriminate different forms of motor imagery during action observation.

The dual-action simulation hypothesis proposes that both an observed and an imagined action can be represented simultaneously in the observer's brain. These two sensorimotor streams would either merge or compete depending on their relative suitability for action planning. To test this hypothesis, three forms of combined action observation and motor imagery (AO + MI) instructions were used in this repeated-measures experiment. Participants observed index finger abduction-adduction movements while imagining the same action (congruent AO + MI), little finger abduction-adduction (coordinative AO + MI), or a static hand (conflicting AO + MI). Single-pulse transcranial magnetic stimulation was applied to the left primary motor cortex. The amplitude of motor evoked potential responses were recorded from both the first dorsal interosseous (FDI) and abductor digiti minimi (ADM) muscles of the right-hand while eye movements were tracked. When controlling for the influence of relevant eye movements, corticospinal excitability was facilitated relative to control conditions in the concurrently observed and imagined muscles for both congruent and coordinative AO + MI conditions. Eye-movement metrics and social validation data from post-experiment interviews provided insight into the attentional and cognitive mechanisms underlying these effects. The findings provide empirical support for the dual-action simulation hypothesis, indicating for the first time that it is possible to co-represent observed and imagined actions simultaneously.

The effects of textured insoles on quiet standing balance in four stance types with and without vision.

BACKGROUND: Wearing a textured shoe insole can decrease postural sway during static balance. Previous studies assessed bipedal and/or unipedal standing. In contrast, we aimed to investigate if textured insoles modulated postural sway during four stance types (bipedal, standard Romberg, tandem Romberg, and unipedal), with and without vision. METHODS: The repeated measures design involved 28 healthy young adults (13 females; mean age = 26.86 ± 6.6 yrs) performing quiet standing in the four stance types on a force platform, under two different insole conditions (textured insole; TI vs. smooth insole; SI), with eyes open and eyes closed. Postural sway was assessed via the range and standard deviation of the COP excursions in the anterior-posterior and medial-lateral sway, and overall mean velocity. RESULTS: The main effect of insole type was statistically significant at the alpha p = 0.05 level (p = 0.045). Compared to smooth insoles, textured insoles reduced the standard deviation of anterior-posterior excursions (APSD). While simple main effect analyses revealed this was most pronounced during eyes closed bipedal standing, insole type did not provide a statistically significant interaction with either stance or vision in this measure, or any other. Postural sway showed statistically significant increases across both stance type (bipedal < standard Romberg < tandem Romberg < unipedal), and vision (eyes closed < eyes open), in almost all measures. Stance and vision did have a statistically significant interaction in each measure, reflecting greater postural disturbances with eyes closed when stance stability decreased. CONCLUSIONS: Overall, these results support textured insole use in healthy young adults to reduce postural sway measures. This is because APSD is an index of spatial variability, where a decrease is associated with improved balance and possibly translates to reduced falls risk. Placing a novel texture in the shoe presumably modulated somatosensory inputs. It is important to understand the underlying mechanisms by which textured insoles influence postural sway. As such, utilising a healthy adult group allows us to investigate possible mechanisms of textured insoles. Future research could investigate the potential underlying mechanisms of textured insole effects at a neuromuscular and cortical level, in healthy young adults.

The effects of textured materials on static balance in healthy young and older adults: A systematic review with meta-analysis.

BACKGROUND: Standing on textured materials can improve static balance, potentially by modulating somatosensory inputs from the soles of the feet. RESEARCH QUESTION: To synthesise and quantify the immediate effects of textured materials on static balance in healthy young and older adults. METHODS: Primary outcomes were the centre of pressure (COP) displacement and velocity, during eyes open and eyes closed conditions. Ten crossover studies (n = 318, 58% female) met the inclusion criteria. A random effects meta-analysis model derived pooled standardised mean differences (SMD; Hedges g) to quantify the effects of textured materials. Heterogeneity was quantified with the tau-statistic (τ). A 95% prediction interval quantified the likely range of true effects on COP outcomes in similar future studies. RESULTS: There was a small to moderate beneficial effect for textured materials vs control conditions in: COP displacement during both eyes open (SMD: 0.29; 95% CI -0.06 to 0.64; τ = 0.32) and eyes closed (SMD: 0.75; 95% CI 0.18 to 1.33; τ = 0.55). A trivial to small beneficial effect was observed in COP velocity during eyes open (SMD: 0.14; 95% CI -0.14 to 0.43; τ = 0.18) and eyes closed (SMD: 0.20; 95% CI 0.01 to 0.40; τ = 0.18) for textured materials. The 95% prediction intervals showed texture may not consistently provide beneficial results across studies for all outcomes: COP displacement EC (-0.61 to 2.12), EO (-0.54 to 1.12), COP velocity EC (-0.27 to 0.68) and EO (-0.44 to 0.73). SIGNIFICANCE: Overall, textured materials improved balance, but these effects were heterogeneous. This research may therefore inform applied investigations into balance improvements for healthy populations, for example, in functional movements and sports.

Combined action observation and motor imagery therapy: a novel method for post-stroke motor rehabilitation.

Cerebral vascular accidents (strokes) are a leading cause of motor deficiency in millions of people worldwide. While a complex range of biological systems is affected following a stroke, in this paper we focus primarily on impairments of the motor system and the recovery of motor skills. We briefly review research that has assessed two types of mental practice, which are currently recommended in stroke rehabilitation. Namely, action observation (AO) therapy and motor imagery (MI) training. We highlight the strengths and limitations in both techniques, before making the case for combined action observation and motor imagery (AO + MI) therapy as a potentially more effective method. This is based on a growing body of multimodal brain imaging research showing advantages for combined AO + MI instructions over the two separate methods of AO and MI. Finally, we offer a series of suggestions and considerations for how combined AO + MI therapy could be employed in neurorehabilitation.

Motor Imagery during Action Observation: A Brief Review of Evidence, Theory and Future Research Opportunities.

Motor imagery (MI) and action observation (AO) have traditionally been viewed as two separate techniques, which can both be used alongside physical practice to enhance motor learning and rehabilitation. Their independent use has largely been shown to be effective, and there is clear evidence that the two processes can elicit similar activity in the motor system. Building on these well-established findings, research has now turned to investigate the effects of their combined use. In this article, we first review the available neurophysiological and behavioral evidence for the effects of combined action observation and motor imagery (AO+MI) on motor processes. We next describe a conceptual framework for their combined use, and then discuss several areas for future research into AO+MI processes. In this review, we advocate a more integrated approach to AO+MI techniques than has previously been adopted by movement scientists and practitioners alike. We hope that this early review of an emergent body of research, along with a related set of research questions, can inspire new work in this area. We are optimistic that future research will further confirm if, how, and when this combined approach to AO+MI can be more effective in motor learning and rehabilitation settings, relative to the more traditional application of MI or AO independently.

Motor imagery during action observation modulates automatic imitation effects in rhythmical actions.

We have previously shown that passively observing a task-irrelevant rhythmical action can bias the cycle time of a subsequently executed rhythmical action. Here we use the same paradigm to investigate the impact of different forms of motor imagery (MI) during action observation (AO) on this automatic imitation (AI) effect. Participants saw a picture of the instructed action followed by a rhythmical distractor movie, wherein cycle time was subtly manipulated across trials. They then executed the instructed rhythmical action. When participants imagined performing the instructed action in synchrony with the distractor action (AO + MI), a strong imitation bias was found that was significantly greater than in our previous study. The bias was pronounced equally for compatible and incompatible trials, wherein observed and imagined actions were different in type (e.g., face washing vs. painting) or plane of movement, or both. In contrast, no imitation bias was observed when MI conflicted with AO. In Experiment 2, motor execution synchronized with AO produced a stronger imitation bias compared to AO + MI, showing an advantage in synchronization for overt execution over MI. Furthermore, the bias was stronger when participants synchronized the instructed action with the distractor movie, compared to when they synchronized the distractor action with the distractor movie. Although we still observed a significant bias in the latter condition, this finding indicates a degree of specificity in AI effects for the identity of the synchronized action. Overall, our data show that MI can substantially modulate the effects of AO on subsequent execution, wherein: (1) combined AO + MI can enhance AI effects relative to passive AO; (2) observed and imagined actions can be flexibly coordinated across different action types and planes; and (3) conflicting AO + MI can abolish AI effects. Therefore, combined AO + MI instructions should be considered in motor training and rehabilitation.

Automatic imitation in rhythmical actions: kinematic fidelity and the effects of compatibility, delay, and visual monitoring.

We demonstrate that observation of everyday rhythmical actions biases subsequent motor execution of the same and of different actions, using a paradigm where the observed actions were irrelevant for action execution. The cycle time of the distractor actions was subtly manipulated across trials, and the cycle time of motor responses served as the main dependent measure. Although distractor frequencies reliably biased response cycle times, this imitation bias was only a small fraction of the modulations in distractor speed, as well as of the modulations produced when participants intentionally imitated the observed rhythms. Importantly, this bias was not only present for compatible actions, but was also found, though numerically reduced, when distractor and executed actions were different (e.g., tooth brushing vs. window wiping), or when the dominant plane of movement was different (horizontal vs. vertical). In addition, these effects were equally pronounced for execution at 0, 4, and 8 s after action observation, a finding that contrasts with the more short-lived effects reported in earlier studies. The imitation bias was also unaffected when vision of the hand was occluded during execution, indicating that this effect most likely resulted from visuomotor interactions during distractor observation, rather than from visual monitoring and guidance during execution. Finally, when the distractor was incompatible in both dimensions (action type and plane) the imitation bias was not reduced further, in an additive way, relative to the single-incompatible conditions. This points to a mechanism whereby the observed action's impact on motor processing is generally reduced whenever this is not useful for motor planning. We interpret these findings in the framework of biased competition, where intended and distractor actions can be represented as competing and quasi-encapsulated sensorimotor streams.

Energetic costs of incidental visual coupling during treadmill running.

PURPOSE: To determine the role of visual-spatial information in stabilizing movement during treadmill locomotion. METHODS: Physiological, biomechanical, and psychological indices of coordination stability were recorded while participants were visually coupled with a whole-body image of themselves during treadmill locomotion. Ten participants ran on a treadmill under three visual conditions: two dynamic images (symmetrical, mirror image; asymmetrical, reversed mirror image) and one static. Performance was examined at two speeds. RESULTS: Participants ran more economically (mL x kg x min(-1)) when they were visually coupled with a symmetrical rather than with an asymmetrical or static image. An asymmetrical coupling resulted in increased variability in footfall position at the faster speed, in comparison to the symmetrical and static conditions. However, at slower speeds, footfall variability and frequency were higher under both dynamic visual conditions in comparison to the static control. Changes in metabolic economy (mL x kg x min(-1)) were only partially mediated by movement kinematics. CONCLUSION: Visual information influences treadmill locomotion and associated measures of stability even when there is no intention to coordinate with external stimuli.