Asynchronous behavioral and neurophysiological changes in word production in the adult lifespan.

Behavioral and brain-related changes in word production have been claimed to predominantly occur after 70 years of age. Most studies investigating age-related changes in adulthood only compared young to older adults, failing to determine whether neural processes underlying word production change at an earlier age than observed in behavior. This study aims to fill this gap by investigating whether changes in neurophysiological processes underlying word production are aligned with behavioral changes. Behavior and the electrophysiological event-related potential patterns of word production were assessed during a picture naming task in 95 participants across five adult lifespan age groups (ranging from 16 to 80 years old). While behavioral performance decreased starting from 70 years of age, significant neurophysiological changes were present at the age of 40 years old, in a time window (between 150 and 220 ms) likely associated with lexical-semantic processes underlying referential word production. These results show that neurophysiological modifications precede the behavioral changes in language production; they can be interpreted in line with the suggestion that the lexical-semantic reorganization in mid-adulthood influences the maintenance of language skills longer than for other cognitive functions.

Word form encoding is under attentional demand: evidence from dual-task interference in aphasia.

Although speakers can go on producing utterances while doing concurrent tasks, language planning is affected in conditions of divided attention. It is however unclear whether a concurrent task impacts only lexical selection, or if post-lexical processing is also impacted. To elucidate this question, we reasoned that if an encoding process is under attentional control, this should be even more the case when the planning process is disrupted due to brain damage: increased error rates in left-hemisphere damaged participants under dual-task conditions should therefore shed light on which encoding processes need attentional resources. Twelve participants producing either predominantly lexical or phonological errors following left-hemisphere stroke and eleven matched healthy controls underwent a dual-task picture naming paradigm with a concurrent auditory verbal and non-verbal task. The results indicate an impact of active dual-tasks on word production in both controls and aphasic participants, but a magnified effect on errors in aphasic participants with an overall increase of phonological errors under dual-task conditions. These results suggest that post-lexical encoding processes are under attentional demand.

Spatio-temporal Dynamics of Referential and Inferential Naming: Different Brain and Cognitive Operations to Lexical Selection.

Picture naming tasks are largely used to elicit the production of specific words and sentences in psycholinguistic and neuroimaging research. However, the generation of lexical concepts from a visual input is clearly not the exclusive way speech production is triggered. In inferential speech encoding, the concept is not provided from a visual input, but is elaborated though semantic and/or episodic associations. It is therefore likely that the cognitive operations leading to lexical selection and word encoding are different in inferential and referential expressive language. In particular, in picture naming lexical selection might ensue from a simple association between a perceptual visual representation and a word with minimal semantic processes, whereas richer semantic associations are involved in lexical retrieval in inferential situations. Here we address this hypothesis by analyzing ERP correlates during word production in a referential and an inferential task. The participants produced the same words elicited from pictures or from short written definitions. The two tasks displayed similar electrophysiological patterns only in the time-period preceding the verbal response. In the stimulus-locked ERPs waveform amplitudes and periods of stable global electrophysiological patterns differed across tasks after the P100 component and until 400-500 ms, suggesting the involvement of different, task-specific neural networks. Based on the analysis of the time-windows affected by specific semantic and lexical variables in each task, we conclude that lexical selection is underpinned by a different set of conceptual and brain processes, with semantic processes clearly preceding word retrieval in naming from definition whereas the semantic information is enriched in parallel with word retrieval in picture naming.

Differentiating semantic categories during the acquisition of novel words: correspondence analysis applied to event-related potentials.

Growing evidence suggests that semantic knowledge is represented in distributed neural networks that include modality-specific structures. Here, we examined the processes underlying the acquisition of words from different semantic categories to determine whether the emergence of visual- and action-based categories could be tracked back to their acquisition. For this, we applied correspondence analysis (CA) to ERPs recorded at various moments during acquisition. CA is a multivariate statistical technique typically used to reveal distance relationships between words of a corpus. Applied to ERPs, it allows isolating factors that best explain variations in the data across time and electrodes. Participants were asked to learn new action and visual words by associating novel pseudowords with the execution of hand movements or the observation of visual images. Words were probed before and after training on two consecutive days. To capture processes that unfold during lexical access, CA was applied on the 100-400 msec post-word onset interval. CA isolated two factors that organized the data as a function of test sessions and word categories. Conventional ERP analyses further revealed a category-specific increase in the negativity of the ERPs to action and visual words at the frontal and occipital electrodes, respectively. The distinct neural processes underlying action and visual words can thus be tracked back to the acquisition of word-referent relationships and may have its origin in association learning. Given current evidence for the flexibility of language-induced sensory-motor activity, we argue that these associative links may serve functions beyond word understanding, that is, the elaboration of situation models.

The Neural Correlates of Embodied L2 Learning: Does Embodied L2 Verb Learning Affect Representation and Retention?

We investigated how naturalistic actions in a highly immersive, multimodal, interactive 3D virtual reality (VR) environment may enhance word encoding by recording EEG in a pre/post-test learning paradigm. While behavior data have shown that coupling word encoding with gestures congruent with word meaning enhances learning, the neural underpinnings of this effect have yet to be elucidated. We coupled EEG recording with VR to examine whether embodied learning improves learning and creates linguistic representations that produce greater motor resonance. Participants learned action verbs in an L2 in two different conditions: specific action (observing and performing congruent actions on virtual objects) and pointing (observing actions and pointing to virtual objects). Pre- and post-training participants performed a match-mismatch task as we measured EEG (variation in the N400 response as a function of match between observed actions and auditory verbs) and a passive listening task while we measured motor activation (mu [8-13 Hz] and beta band [13-30 Hz] desynchronization during auditory verb processing) during verb processing. Contrary to our expectations, post-training results revealed neither semantic nor motor effects in either group when considered independently of learning success. Behavioral results showed a great deal of variability in learning success. When considering performance, low performance learners showed no semantic effect and high performance learners exhibited an N400 effect for mismatch versus match trials post-training, independent of the type of learning. Taken as a whole, our results suggest that embodied processes can play an important role in L2 learning.

Referential and inferential production across the lifespan: different patterns and different predictive cognitive factors.

Introduction: The ability to speak is grounded in general memory and control processes and likely changes across the lifespan. However, our knowledge on how word production abilities naturally evolve from childhood to old age remains marginally investigated. Our aim was to shed further light on this issue by exploiting the contrast between two ways to elicit word production: referential picture naming and inferential naming from definition. Methods: We collected accuracy and production latencies in a picture naming task and in a naming from definition task from 130 participants ranging from 10 to 80 years old. Measures of vocabulary size, digit span memory, semantic and phonemic fluencies and processing speed were also collected. We used multivariate adaptative regression splines and regression models to characterize lifespan patterns of the two tasks. Results: Patterns of increase in performance were similar for picture naming and naming from definition only from childhood to young adulthood. In the second half of the lifespan, significant decrease of performance was found in older adults for picture naming (from around 60 years-old) but not for naming from definition. Clearly, word production elicited with an inferential task (naming from definition) yields different age-related patterns than usually described in the literature with a referential task (picture naming). Discussion: We discuss how cognitive processes such as visual-conceptual processes and lexical prediction may explain the differential pattern of results in aging in referential and inferential production tasks. We argue for more lifespan studies and the need to investigate language production beyond picture naming, in particular with respect to aging.

Consensus Paper: Current Perspectives on Abstract Concepts and Future Research Directions.

concepts are relevant to a wide range of disciplines, including cognitive science, linguistics, psychology, cognitive, social, and affective neuroscience, and philosophy. This consensus paper synthesizes the work and views of researchers in the field, discussing current perspectives on theoretical and methodological issues, and recommendations for future research. In this paper, we urge researchers to go beyond the traditional abstract-concrete dichotomy and consider the multiple dimensions that characterize concepts (e.g., sensorimotor experience, social interaction, conceptual metaphor), as well as the mediating influence of linguistic and cultural context on conceptual representations. We also promote the use of interactive methods to investigate both the comprehension and production of abstract concepts, while also focusing on individual differences in conceptual representations. Overall, we argue that abstract concepts should be studied in a more nuanced way that takes into account their complexity and diversity, which should permit us a fuller, more holistic understanding of abstract cognition.

Dynamics of Word Production in the Transition from Adolescence to Adulthood.

Changes in word production occur across the lifespan. Previous studies have shown electrophysiological, temporal, and functional differences between children and adults accompanying behavioral changes in picture-naming tasks (Laganaro, Tzieropoulos, Fraunfelder, & Zesiger, 2015). Thus, a shift toward adult-like processes in referential word production occurs somewhere between the ages of 13 and 20. Our aim was to investigate when and how children develop adult-like behavior and brain activation in word production. Toward this aim, performance and event-related potentials (ERP) in a referential word production task were recorded and compared for two groups of adolescents (aged 14 to 16 and 17 to 18), children (aged 10 to 13), and young adults (aged 20 to 30). Both groups of adolescents displayed adult-like production latencies, which were longer only for children, while accuracy was lower in the younger adolescents and in children, compared to adults. ERP waveform analysis and topographic pattern analysis revealed significant intergroup differences in key time-windows on stimulus-locked ERPs, both early (150-220 ms)-associated with pre-linguistic processes-and late (280-330 ms)-associated with lexical processes. The results indicate that brain activation underlying referential word production is completely adult-like in 17-year-old adolescents, whereas an intermediate pattern is still observed in adolescents aged 14 to 16 years old, although their production speed, but not their accuracy, is already adult-like.

Neural dynamics of the production of newly acquired words relative to well-known words.

An adult continues acquiring new lexical entries in everyday life. Brain networks and processes at play when producing newly learnt words might be similar to well-known words, yet some processes are bound to be slower. Here, we compared the neural dynamics of producing newly acquired words with those of well-known frequent words, both qualitatively and quantitatively, using event-related potentials (ERPs) associated to high-density microstate analyses. ERPs revealed several temporal windows with differences in waveform amplitudes, which correspond to enhanced duration of similar microstates for newly acquired words compared to well-known words. The time-periods of these ERP modulations converged to suggest that both lexical processes and word form encoding are slowed down for words that have been learned recently, but that the same brain processes are implemented as for well-known words.

Age-Specific Effects of Lexical-Semantic Networks on Word Production.

The lexical-semantic organization of the mental lexicon is bound to change across the lifespan. Nevertheless, the effects of lexical-semantic factors on word processing are usually based on studies enrolling young adult cohorts. The current study aims to investigate to what extent age-specific semantic organization predicts performance in referential word production over the lifespan, from school-age children to older adults. In Study 1, we conducted a free semantic association task with participants from six age-groups (ranging from 10 to 80 years old) to compute measures that capture age-specific properties of the mental lexicon across the lifespan. These measures relate to lifespan changes in the Available Richness of the mental lexicon and in the lexical-semantic Network Prototypicality of concrete words. In Study 2, we used the collected data to predict performance in a picture-naming task on a new group of participants within the same age-groups as for Study 1. The results show that age-specific semantic Available Richness and Network Prototypicality affect word production speed while the semantic variables collected only in young adults do not. A richer and more prototypical semantic network across subjects from a given age-group is associated with faster word production speed. The current results indicate that age-specific semantic organization is crucial to predict lexical-semantic behaviors across the lifespan. Similarly, these results also provide cues to the understanding of the lexical-semantic properties of the mental lexicon and to lexical selection in referential tasks.

Interference in speaking while hearing and vice versa.

Even when speakers are not actively doing another task, they can be interfered in their speech planning by concurrent auditory stimuli. In this study, we used picture naming with passive hearing, or active listening, combined to high-density electroencephalographic (EEG) recordings to investigate the locus and origin of interference on speech production. Participants named pictures while ignoring (or paying attention to) auditory syllables presented at different intervals (+150 ms, +300 ms or +450 ms). Interference of passive hearing was observed at all positive stimulus onset asynchronies (SOA) including when distractors appeared 450 ms after picture onset. Analyses of ERPs and microstates revealed modulations appearing in a time-window close to verbal response onset likely relating to post-lexical planning processes. A shift of latency of the N1 auditory component for syllables displayed 450 ms after picture onset relative to hearing in isolation was also observed. Data from picture naming with active listening to auditory syllables also pointed to post-lexical interference. The present study suggests that, beyond the lexical stage, post-lexical processes can be interfered and that the reciprocal interference between utterance planning and hearing relies on attentional demand and possibly competing neural substrates.

ERP evidence of distinct processes underlying semantic facilitation and interference in word production.

In everyday conversations, we take advantage of lexical-semantic contexts to facilitate speech production, but at the same time, we also have to reduce interference and inhibit semantic competitors. The blocked cyclic naming paradigm (BCNP) has been used to investigate such context effects. Typical results on production latencies showed semantic facilitation (or no effect) during the first presentation cycle, and interference emerging in subsequent cycles. Even if semantic contexts might be just as facilitative as interfering, previous BCNP studies focused on interference, which was interpreted as reflecting lemma selection and self-monitoring processes. Facilitation in the first cycle was rarely considered/analysed, although it potentially informs on word production to the same extent as interference. Here we contrasted the event-related potential (ERP) signatures of both semantic facilitation and interference in a BCNP. ERPs differed between homogeneous and heterogeneous blocks from about 365 msec post picture onset in the first cycle (facilitation) and in an earlier time-window (270 msec post picture onset) in the third cycle (interference). Three different analyses of the ERPs converge towards distinct processes underlying semantic facilitation and interference (post-lexical vs lexical respectively). The loci of semantic facilitation and interference are interpreted in the context of different theoretical frameworks of language production: the post-lexical locus of semantic facilitation involves interactive phonological-semantic processes and/or self-monitoring, whereas the lexical locus of semantic interference is in line with selection through increased lexical competition.

When Wine and Apple Both Help the Production of Grapes: ERP Evidence for Post-lexical Semantic Facilitation in Picture Naming.

Background: Producing a word in referential naming requires to select the right word in our mental lexicon among co-activated semantically related words. The mechanisms underlying semantic context effects during speech planning are still controversial, particularly for semantic facilitation which investigation remains under-represented in contrast to the plethora of studies dealing with interference. Our aim is to study the time-course of semantic facilitation in picture naming, using a picture-word "interference" paradigm and event-related potentials (ERPs). Methods: We compared two different types of semantic relationships, associative and categorical, in a single word priming and a double word priming paradigm. The primes were presented visually with a long negative Stimulus Onset Asynchrony (SOA), which is expected to cause facilitation. Results: Shorter naming latencies were observed after both associative and categorical primes, as compared to unrelated primes, and even shorter latencies after two primes. Electrophysiological results showed relatively late modulations of waveform amplitudes for both types of primes (beginning ~330 ms post picture onset with a single prime and ~275 ms post picture onset with two primes), corresponding to a shift in latency of similar topographic maps across conditions. Conclusion: The present results are in favor of a post-lexical locus of semantic facilitation for associative and categorical priming in picture naming and confirm that semantic facilitation is as relevant as semantic interference to inform on word production. The post-lexical locus argued here might be related to self-monitoting or/and to modulations at the level of word-form planning, without excluding the participation of strategic processes.

Word onset phonetic properties and motor artifacts in speech production EEG recordings.

Electrophysiological research using verbal response paradigms faces the problem of muscle artifacts that occur during speech production or in the period preceding articulation. In this context, this paper has two related aims. The first is to show how the nature of the first phoneme influences the alignment of the ERPs. The second is to further characterize the EEG signal around the onset of articulation, both in temporal and frequency domains. Participants were asked to name aloud pictures of common objects. We applied microstate analyses and time-frequency transformations of ERPs locked to vocal onset to compare the EEG signal between voiced and unvoiced labial plosive word onset consonants. We found a delay of about 40 ms in the set of stable topographic patterns for /b/ relative to /p/ onset words. A similar shift was observed in the power increase of gamma oscillations (30-50 Hz), which had an earlier onset for /p/ trials (∼150 ms before vocal onset). This 40-ms shift is consistent with the length of the voiced proportion of the acoustic signal prior to the release of the closure in the vocal responses. These results demonstrate that phonetic features are an important parameter affecting response-locked ERPs, and hence that the onset of the acoustic energy may not be an optimal trigger for synchronizing the EEG activity to the response in vocal paradigms. The indexes explored in this study provide a step forward in the characterization of muscle-related artifacts in electrophysiological studies of speech and language production.

Neurophysiological Modulations of Non-Verbal and Verbal Dual-Tasks Interference during Word Planning.

Running a concurrent task while speaking clearly interferes with speech planning, but whether verbal vs. non-verbal tasks interfere with the same processes is virtually unknown. We investigated the neural dynamics of dual-task interference on word production using event-related potentials (ERPs) with either tones or syllables as concurrent stimuli. Participants produced words from pictures in three conditions: without distractors, while passively listening to distractors and during a distractor detection task. Production latencies increased for tasks with higher attentional demand and were longer for syllables relative to tones. ERP analyses revealed common modulations by dual-task for verbal and non-verbal stimuli around 240 ms, likely corresponding to lexical selection. Modulations starting around 350 ms prior to vocal onset were only observed when verbal stimuli were involved. These later modulations, likely reflecting interference with phonological-phonetic encoding, were observed only when overlap between tasks was maximal and the same underlying neural circuits were engaged (cross-talk).

Neurobiological Correlates of Inhibition of the Right Broca Homolog during New-Word Learning.

Repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS) has demonstrated beneficial effects on motor learning. It would be important to obtain a similar enhancement for verbal learning. However, previous studies have mostly assessed short-term effects of rTMS on language performance and the effect on learning is largely unknown. This study examined whether an inhibition of the right Broca homolog has long-term impact on neural processes underlying the acquisition of new words in healthy individuals. Sixteen young participants trained a new-word learning paradigm with rare, mostly unknown objects and their corresponding words immediately after continuous theta burst stimulation (cTBS) or sham stimulation of right inferior frontal gyrus (IFG) in a cross-over design. Neural effects were assessed with electroencephalography (EEG) source power analyses during the naming task as well as coherence analyses at rest 1 day before and after training. Inhibition of the right Broca homolog did not affect new word learning performance at the group level. Behavioral and neural responses to cTBS were variable across participants and were associated with the magnitude of resting-state alpha-band coherence between the stimulated area and the rest of the brain before stimulation. Only participants with high intrinsic alpha-band coherence between the stimulated area and the rest of the brain before stimulation showed the expected inhibition during naming and greater learning performance. In conclusion, our study confirms that cTBS can induce lasting modulations of neural processes which are associated with learning, but the effect depends on the individual network state.

Neural dynamics of object noun, action verb and action noun production in picture naming.

The verb/noun dissociation has often involved the semantic/grammatical confound. We conducted two event-related potentials (ERPs) studies with the aim of minimizing this confound. In Experiment 1 participants named pictures depicting actions, with verbs or nouns and pictures depicting objects with nouns. In Experiment 2, participants named objects (nouns) or actions (verbs/nouns) from the same set of action pictures. Compatible with lexical-semantic processes, semantic category modulated waveform amplitudes and topographic patterns between 250 and 380 ms after picture-onset in Experiment 1. No such effects were observed in Experiment 2. No effects were found for grammatical class in both experiments suggesting that grammatical information is not mandatorily activated during lexical-semantic processes. Given the absence of dissociation when same pictures were used the results are described as feed-forward effects from visual to semantic processing, indicating differential neural networks for lexical selection of action and object words from their corresponding visual referents.

Neural correlates of non-verbal social interactions: a dual-EEG study.

Successful non-verbal social interaction between human beings requires dynamic and efficient encoding of others' gestures. Our study aimed at identifying neural markers of social interaction and goal variations in a non-verbal task. For this, we recorded simultaneously the electroencephalogram from two participants (dual-EEG), an actor and an observer, and their arm/hand kinematics in a real face-to-face paradigm. The observer watched "biological actions" performed by the human actor and "non-biological actions" performed by a robot. All actions occurred within an interactive or non-interactive context depending on whether the observer had to perform a complementary action or not (e.g., the actor presents a saucer and the observer either places the corresponding cup or does nothing). We analysed the EEG signals of both participants (i.e., beta (~20 Hz) oscillations as an index of cortical motor activity and motor related potentials (MRPs)). We identified markers of social interactions by synchronising EEG to the onset of the actor's movement. Movement kinematics did not differ in the two context conditions and the MRPs of the actor were similar in the two conditions. For the observer, however, an observation-related MRP was measured in all conditions but was more negative in the interactive context over fronto-central electrodes. Moreover, this feature was specific to biological actions. Concurrently, the suppression of beta oscillations was observed in the actor's EEG and the observer's EEG rapidly after the onset of the actor's movement. Critically, this suppression was stronger in the interactive than in the non-interactive context despite the fact that movement kinematics did not differ in the two context conditions. For the observer, this modulation was observed independently of whether the actor was a human or a robot. Our results suggest that acting in a social context induced analogous modulations of motor and sensorimotor regions in observer and actor. Sharing a common goal during an interaction seems thus to evoke a common representation of the global action that includes both actor and observer movements.

Grasp it loudly! Supporting actions with semantically congruent spoken action words.

Evidence for cross-talk between motor and language brain structures has accumulated over the past several years. However, while a significant amount of research has focused on the interaction between language perception and action, little attention has been paid to the potential impact of language production on overt motor behaviour. The aim of the present study was to test whether verbalizing during a grasp-to-displace action would affect motor behaviour and, if so, whether this effect would depend on the semantic content of the pronounced word (Experiment I). Furthermore, we sought to test the stability of such effects in a different group of participants and investigate at which stage of the motor act language intervenes (Experiment II). For this, participants were asked to reach, grasp and displace an object while overtly pronouncing verbal descriptions of the action ("grasp" and "put down") or unrelated words (e.g. "butterfly" and "pigeon"). Fine-grained analyses of several kinematic parameters such as velocity peaks revealed that when participants produced action-related words their movements became faster compared to conditions in which they did not verbalize or in which they produced words that were not related to the action. These effects likely result from the functional interaction between semantic retrieval of the words and the planning and programming of the action. Therefore, links between (action) language and motor structures are significant to the point that language can refine overt motor behaviour.

Learning to associate novel words with motor actions: language-induced motor activity following short training.

Action words referring to face, arm or leg actions activate areas along the motor strip that also control the planning and execution of the actions specified by the words. This electroencephalogram (EEG) study aimed to test the learning profile of this language-induced motor activity. Participants were trained to associate novel verbal stimuli to videos of object-oriented hand and arm movements or animated visual images on two consecutive days. Each training session was preceded and followed by a test-session with isolated videos and verbal stimuli. We measured motor-related brain activity (reflected by a desynchronization in the µ frequency bands; 8-12 Hz range) localized at centro-parietal and fronto-central electrodes. We compared activity from viewing the videos to activity resulting from processing the language stimuli only. At centro-parietal electrodes, stable action-related µ suppression was observed during viewing of videos in each test-session of the two days. For processing of verbal stimuli associated with motor actions, a similar pattern of activity was evident only in the second test-session of Day 1. Over the fronto-central regions, µ suppression was observed in the second test-session of Day 2 for the videos and in the second test-session of Day 1 for the verbal stimuli. Whereas the centro-parietal µ suppression can be attributed to motor events actually experienced during training, the fronto-central µ suppression seems to serve as a convergence zone that mediates underspecified motor information. Consequently, sensory-motor reactivations through which concepts are comprehended seem to differ in neural dynamics from those implicated in their acquisition.