Emergence and spread of the barley net blotch pathogen coincided with crop domestication and cultivation history.

Fungal pathogens cause devastating disease in crops. Understanding the evolutionary origin of pathogens is essential to the prediction of future disease emergence and the potential of pathogens to disperse. The fungus Pyrenophora teres f. teres causes net form net blotch (NFNB), an economically significant disease of barley. In this study, we have used 104 P. teres f. teres genomes from four continents to explore the population structure and demographic history of the fungal pathogen. We showed that P. teres f. teres is structured into populations that tend to be geographically restricted to different regions. Using Multiple Sequentially Markovian Coalescent and machine learning approaches we demonstrated that the demographic history of the pathogen correlates with the history of barley, highlighting the importance of human migration and trade in spreading the pathogen. Exploring signatures of natural selection, we identified several population-specific selective sweeps that colocalized with genomic regions enriched in putative virulence genes, and loci previously identified as determinants of virulence specificities by quantitative trait locus analyses. This reflects rapid adaptation to local hosts and environmental conditions of P. teres f. teres as it spread with barley. Our research highlights how human activities can contribute to the spread of pathogens that significantly impact the productivity of field crops.

Recent reactivation of a pathogenicity-associated transposable element is associated with major chromosomal rearrangements in a fungal wheat pathogen.

Transposable elements (TEs) are key drivers of genomic variation contributing to recent adaptation in most species. Yet, the evolutionary origins and insertion dynamics within species remain poorly understood. We recapitulate the spread of the pathogenicity-associated Styx element across five species that last diverged ∼11 000 years ago. We show that the element likely originated in the Zymoseptoria fungal pathogen genus and underwent multiple independent reactivation events. Using a global 900-genome panel of the wheat pathogen Zymoseptoria tritici, we assess Styx copy number variation and identify renewed transposition activity in Oceania and South America. We show that the element can mobilize to create additional Styx copies in a four-generation pedigree. Importantly, we find that new copies of the element are not affected by genomic defenses suggesting minimal control against the element. Styx copies are preferentially located in recombination breakpoints and likely triggered multiple types of large chromosomal rearrangements. Taken together, we establish the origin, diversification and reactivation of a highly active TE with likely major consequences for chromosomal integrity and the expression of disease.

Segmental duplications drive the evolution of accessory regions in a major crop pathogen.

Many pathogens evolved compartmentalized genomes with conserved core and variable accessory regions (ARs) that carry effector genes mediating virulence. The fungal plant pathogen Fusarium oxysporum has such ARs, often spanning entire chromosomes. The presence of specific ARs influences the host range, and horizontal transfer of ARs can modify the pathogenicity of the receiving strain. However, how these ARs evolve in strains that infect the same host remains largely unknown. We defined the pan-genome of 69 diverse F. oxysporum strains that cause Fusarium wilt of banana, a significant constraint to global banana production, and analyzed the diversity and evolution of the ARs. Accessory regions in F. oxysporum strains infecting the same banana cultivar are highly diverse, and we could not identify any shared genomic regions and in planta-induced effectors. We demonstrate that segmental duplications drive the evolution of ARs. Furthermore, we show that recent segmental duplications specifically in accessory chromosomes cause the expansion of ARs in F. oxysporum. Taken together, we conclude that extensive recent duplications drive the evolution of ARs in F. oxysporum, which contribute to the evolution of virulence.

Recent loss of the Dim2 DNA methyltransferase decreases mutation rate in repeats and changes evolutionary trajectory in a fungal pathogen.

DNA methylation is found throughout all domains of life, yet the extent and function of DNA methylation differ among eukaryotes. Strains of the plant pathogenic fungus Zymoseptoria tritici appeared to lack cytosine DNA methylation (5mC) because gene amplification followed by Repeat-Induced Point mutation (RIP) resulted in the inactivation of the dim2 DNA methyltransferase gene. 5mC is, however, present in closely related sister species. We demonstrate that inactivation of dim2 occurred recently as some Z. tritici isolates carry a functional dim2 gene. Moreover, we show that dim2 inactivation occurred by a different path than previously hypothesized. We mapped the genome-wide distribution of 5mC in strains with or without functional dim2 alleles. Presence of functional dim2 correlates with high levels of 5mC in transposable elements (TEs), suggesting a role in genome defense. We identified low levels of 5mC in strains carrying non-functional dim2 alleles, suggesting that 5mC is maintained over time, presumably by an active Dnmt5 DNA methyltransferase. Integration of a functional dim2 allele in strains with mutated dim2 restored normal 5mC levels, demonstrating de novo cytosine methylation activity of Dim2. To assess the importance of 5mC for genome evolution, we performed an evolution experiment, comparing genomes of strains with high levels of 5mC to genomes of strains lacking functional dim2. We found that presence of a functional dim2 allele alters nucleotide composition by promoting C to T transitions (C→T) specifically at CpA (CA) sites during mitosis, likely contributing to TE inactivation. Our results show that 5mC density at TEs is a polymorphic trait in Z. tritici populations that can impact genome evolution.

Interspecific Gene Exchange as a Driver of Adaptive Evolution in Fungi.

Throughout evolutionary history in the kingdom Fungi, taxa have exchanged genetic information among species, as revealed in particular by analyses of genome sequences. In fungi, hybridization can occur by sexual mating or by fusion of vegetative structures giving rise to new species or leaving traces of introgression in the genome. Furthermore, gene exchange can occur by horizontal gene transfer between species and can even include organisms outside the kingdom Fungi. In several cases, interspecific gene exchange has been instrumental in rapid adaptive evolution of fungal species and has notably played a role in the emergence of new pathogens. Here we summarize mechanisms and examples of gene exchange in fungi with a particular focus on the genomic context. We emphasize the need for and potential of applying population genetic approaches to better understand the processes and the impact of interspecific gene exchange in rapid adaptive evolution and species diversification. The broad occurrence of gene exchange among fungal species challenges our species concepts in the kingdom Fungi.

Differential Regulation and Production of Secondary Metabolites among Isolates of the Fungal Wheat Pathogen Zymoseptoria tritici.

The genome of the wheat-pathogenic fungus Zymoseptoria tritici represents extensive presence-absence variation in gene content. Here, we addressed variation in biosynthetic gene cluster (BGC) content and biochemical profiles among three isolates. We analyzed secondary metabolite properties based on genome, transcriptome, and metabolome data. The isolates represent highly distinct genome architecture but harbor similar repertoires of BGCs. Expression profiles for most BGCs show comparable patterns of regulation among the isolates, suggesting a conserved biochemical infection program. For all three isolates, we observed a strong upregulation of a putative abscisic acid (ABA) gene cluster during biotrophic host colonization, indicating that Z. tritici interferes with host defenses by the biosynthesis of this phytohormone. Further, during in vitro growth, the isolates show similar metabolomes congruent with the predicted BGC content. We assessed if secondary metabolite production is regulated by histone methylation using a mutant impaired in formation of facultative heterochromatin (H3K27me3). In contrast to other ascomycete fungi, chromatin modifications play a less prominent role in regulation of secondary metabolites. In summary, we show that Z. tritici has a conserved program of secondary metabolite production, contrasting with the immense variation in effector expression, and some of these metabolites might play a key role during host colonization. IMPORTANCE Zymoseptoria tritici is one of the most devastating pathogens of wheat. So far the molecular determinants of virulence and their regulation are poorly understood. Previous studies have focused on proteinaceous virulence factors and their extensive diversity. In this study, we focus on secondary metabolites produced by Z. tritici. Using a comparative framework, we characterize core and noncore metabolites produced by Z. tritici by combining genome, transcriptome, and metabolome data sets. Our findings indicate highly conserved biochemical profiles with contrasting genetic and phenotypic diversity of the field isolates investigated here. This discovery has relevance for future crop protection strategies.

Genome compartmentalization predates species divergence in the plant pathogen genus Zymoseptoria.

BACKGROUND: Antagonistic co-evolution can drive rapid adaptation in pathogens and shape genome architecture. Comparative genome analyses of several fungal pathogens revealed highly variable genomes, for many species characterized by specific repeat-rich genome compartments with exceptionally high sequence variability. Dynamic genome structure may enable fast adaptation to host genetics. The wheat pathogen Zymoseptoria tritici with its highly variable genome, has emerged as a model organism to study genome evolution of plant pathogens. Here, we compared genomes of Z. tritici isolates and of sister species infecting wild grasses to address the evolution of genome composition and structure. RESULTS: Using long-read technology, we sequenced and assembled genomes of Z. ardabiliae, Z. brevis, Z. pseudotritici and Z. passerinii, together with two isolates of Z. tritici. We report a high extent of genome collinearity among Zymoseptoria species and high conservation of genomic, transcriptomic and epigenomic signatures of compartmentalization. We identify high gene content variability both within and between species. In addition, such variability is mainly limited to the accessory chromosomes and accessory compartments. Despite strong host specificity and non-overlapping host-range between species, predicted effectors are mainly shared among Zymoseptoria species, yet exhibiting a high level of presence-absence polymorphism within Z. tritici. Using in planta transcriptomic data from Z. tritici, we suggest different roles for the shared orthologs and for the accessory genes during infection of their hosts. CONCLUSION: Despite previous reports of high genomic plasticity in Z. tritici, we describe here a high level of conservation in genomic, epigenomic and transcriptomic composition and structure across the genus Zymoseptoria. The compartmentalized genome allows the maintenance of a functional core genome co-occurring with a highly variable accessory genome.

Threat to Asian wild apple trees posed by gene flow from domesticated apple trees and their "pestified" pathogens.

Secondary contact between crops and their wild relatives poses a threat to wild species, not only through gene flow between plants, but also through the dispersal of crop pathogens and genetic exchanges involving these pathogens, particularly those that have become more virulent by indirect selection on resistant crops, a phenomenon known as "pestification." Joint analyses of wild and domesticated hosts and their pathogens are essential to address this issue, but such analyses remain rare. We used population genetics approaches, demographic inference and pathogenicity tests on host-pathogen pairs of wild or domesticated apple trees from Central Asia and their main fungal pathogen, Venturia inaequalis, which itself has differentiated agricultural and wild-type populations. We confirmed the occurrence of gene flow from cultivated (Malus domestica) to wild (Malus sieversii) apple trees in Asian forests, potentially threatening the persistence of Asian wild apple trees. Pathogenicity tests demonstrated the pestification of V. inaequalis, the agricultural-type population being more virulent on both wild and domesticated trees. Single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) markers and the demographic modelling of pathogen populations revealed hybridization following secondary contact between agricultural and wild-type fungal populations, and dispersal of the agricultural-type pathogen population in wild forests, increasing the threat of disease in the wild apple species. We detected an SNP potentially involved in pathogen pestification, generating an early stop codon in a gene encoding a small secreted protein in the agricultural-type fungal population. Our findings, based on joint analyses of paired host and pathogen data sets, highlight the threat posed by cultivating a crop near its centre of origin, in terms of pestified pathogen invasions in wild plant populations and introgression in the wild-type pathogen population.

Independent domestication events in the blue-cheese fungus Penicillium roqueforti.

Domestication provides an excellent framework for studying adaptive divergence. Using population genomics and phenotypic assays, we reconstructed the domestication history of the blue cheese mould Penicillium roqueforti. We showed that this fungus was domesticated twice independently. The population used in Roquefort originated from an old domestication event associated with weak bottlenecks and exhibited traits beneficial for pre-industrial cheese production (slower growth in cheese and greater spore production on bread, the traditional multiplication medium). The other cheese population originated more recently from the selection of a single clonal lineage, was associated with all types of blue cheese worldwide except Roquefort, and displayed phenotypes more suited for industrial cheese production (high lipolytic activity, efficient cheese cavity colonization ability and salt tolerance). We detected genomic regions affected by recent positive selection and putative horizontal gene transfers. This study sheds light on the processes of rapid adaptation and raises questions about genetic resource conservation.

Strong phylogeographic co-structure between the anther-smut fungus and its white campion host.

Although congruence between host and pathogen phylogenies has been extensively investigated, the congruence between host and pathogen genetic structures at the within-species level has received little attention. Using an unprecedented and comprehensive collection of associated plant-pathogen samples, we investigated the degree of congruence between the genetic structures across Europe of two evolutionary and ecological model organisms, the anther-smut pathogen Microbotryum lychnidis-dioicae and its host plant Silene latifolia. We demonstrated a significant and particularly strong level of host-pathogen co-structure, with three main genetic clusters displaying highly similar spatial ranges in Western Europe, Eastern Europe and Italy, respectively. Correcting for the geographical component of genetic variation, significant correlations were still found between the genetic distances of anther-smut and host populations. Inoculation experiments suggested plant local adaptation, at the cluster level, for resistance to pathogens. These findings indicate that the pathogen remained isolated in the same fragmented southern refugia as its host plant during the last glaciation, and that little long-distance dispersal has occurred since the recolonization of Europe for either the plant or the pathogen, despite their known ability to travel across continents. This, together with the inoculation results, suggests that coevolutionary and competitive processes may be drivers of host-pathogen co-structure.

Copy number variation introduced by a massive mobile element facilitates global thermal adaptation in a fungal wheat pathogen.

Copy number variation (CNV) can drive rapid evolution in changing environments. In microbial pathogens, such adaptation is a key factor underpinning epidemics and colonization of new niches. However, the genomic determinants of such adaptation remain poorly understood. Here, we systematically investigate CNVs in a large genome sequencing dataset spanning a worldwide collection of 1104 genomes from the major wheat pathogen Zymoseptoria tritici. We found overall strong purifying selection acting on most CNVs. Genomic defense mechanisms likely accelerated gene loss over episodes of continental colonization. Local adaptation along climatic gradients was likely facilitated by CNVs affecting secondary metabolite production and gene loss in general. One of the strongest loci for climatic adaptation is a highly conserved gene of the NAD-dependent Sirtuin family. The Sirtuin CNV locus localizes to an ~68-kb Starship mobile element unique to the species carrying genes highly expressed during plant infection. The element has likely lost the ability to transpose, demonstrating how the ongoing domestication of cargo-carrying selfish elements can contribute to selectable variation within populations. Our work highlights how standing variation in gene copy numbers at the global scale can be a major factor driving climatic and metabolic adaptation in microbial species.

A thousand-genome panel retraces the global spread and adaptation of a major fungal crop pathogen.

Human activity impacts the evolutionary trajectories of many species worldwide. Global trade of agricultural goods contributes to the dispersal of pathogens reshaping their genetic makeup and providing opportunities for virulence gains. Understanding how pathogens surmount control strategies and cope with new climates is crucial to predicting the future impact of crop pathogens. Here, we address this by assembling a global thousand-genome panel of Zymoseptoria tritici, a major fungal pathogen of wheat reported in all production areas worldwide. We identify the global invasion routes and ongoing genetic exchange of the pathogen among wheat-growing regions. We find that the global expansion was accompanied by increased activity of transposable elements and weakened genomic defenses. Finally, we find significant standing variation for adaptation to new climates encountered during the global spread. Our work shows how large population genomic panels enable deep insights into the evolutionary trajectory of a major crop pathogen.

Emergence and diversification of a highly invasive chestnut pathogen lineage across southeastern Europe.

Invasive microbial species constitute a major threat to biodiversity, agricultural production and human health. Invasions are often dominated by one or a small number of genotypes, yet the underlying factors driving invasions are poorly understood. The chestnut blight fungus Cryphonectria parasitica first decimated the North American chestnut, and a more recent outbreak threatens European chestnut stands. To unravel the chestnut blight invasion of southeastern Europe, we sequenced 230 genomes of predominantly European strains. Genotypes outside of the invasion zone showed high levels of diversity with evidence for frequent and ongoing recombination. The invasive lineage emerged from the highly diverse European genotype pool rather than a secondary introduction from Asia or North America. The expansion across southeastern Europe was mostly clonal and is dominated by a single mating type, suggesting a fitness advantage of asexual reproduction. Our findings show how an intermediary, highly diverse bridgehead population gave rise to an invasive, largely clonally expanding pathogen.

Dynamics of transposable elements in recently diverged fungal pathogens: lineage-specific transposable element content and efficiency of genome defenses.

Transposable elements (TEs) impact genome plasticity, architecture, and evolution in fungal plant pathogens. The wide range of TE content observed in fungal genomes reflects diverse efficacy of host-genome defense mechanisms that can counter-balance TE expansion and spread. Closely related species can harbor drastically different TE repertoires. The evolution of fungal effectors, which are crucial determinants of pathogenicity, has been linked to the activity of TEs in pathogen genomes. Here, we describe how TEs have shaped genome evolution of the fungal wheat pathogen Zymoseptoria tritici and four closely related species. We compared de novo TE annotations and repeat-induced point mutation signatures in 26 genomes from the Zymoseptoria species-complex. Then, we assessed the relative insertion ages of TEs using a comparative genomics approach. Finally, we explored the impact of TE insertions on genome architecture and plasticity. The 26 genomes of Zymoseptoria species reflect different TE dynamics with a majority of recent insertions. TEs associate with accessory genome compartments, with chromosomal rearrangements, with gene presence/absence variation, and with effectors in all Zymoseptoria species. We find that the extent of RIP-like signatures varies among Z. tritici genomes compared to genomes of the sister species. The detection of a reduction of RIP-like signatures and TE recent insertions in Z. tritici reflects ongoing but still moderate TE mobility.

Epigenetic modifications affect the rate of spontaneous mutations in a pathogenic fungus.

Mutations are the source of genetic variation and the substrate for evolution. Genome-wide mutation rates appear to be affected by selection and are probably adaptive. Mutation rates are also known to vary along genomes, possibly in response to epigenetic modifications, but causality is only assumed. In this study we determine the direct impact of epigenetic modifications and temperature stress on mitotic mutation rates in a fungal pathogen using a mutation accumulation approach. Deletion mutants lacking epigenetic modifications confirm that histone mark H3K27me3 increases whereas H3K9me3 decreases the mutation rate. Furthermore, cytosine methylation in transposable elements (TE) increases the mutation rate 15-fold resulting in significantly less TE mobilization. Also accessory chromosomes have significantly higher mutation rates. Finally, we find that temperature stress substantially elevates the mutation rate. Taken together, we find that epigenetic modifications and environmental conditions modify the rate and the location of spontaneous mutations in the genome and alter its evolutionary trajectory.

Population Genomics of Fungal Plant Pathogens and the Analyses of Rapidly Evolving Genome Compartments.

Genome sequencing of fungal pathogens have documented extensive variation in genome structure and composition between species and in many cases between individuals of the same species. This type of genomic variation can be adaptive for pathogens to rapidly evolve new virulence phenotypes. Analyses of genome-wide variation in fungal pathogen genomes rely on high quality assemblies and methods to detect and quantify structural variation. Population genomic studies in fungi have addressed the underlying mechanisms whereby structural variation can be rapidly generated. Transposable elements, high mutation and recombination rates as well as incorrect chromosome segregation during mitosis and meiosis contribute to extensive variation observed in many species. We here summarize key findings in the field of fungal pathogen genomics and we discuss methods to detect and characterize structural variants including an alignment-based pipeline to study variation in population genomic data.

On Variant Discovery in Genomes of Fungal Plant Pathogens.

Comparative genome analyses of eukaryotic pathogens including fungi and oomycetes have revealed extensive variability in genome composition and structure. The genomes of individuals from the same population can exhibit different numbers of chromosomes and different organization of chromosomal segments, defining so-called accessory compartments that have been shown to be crucial to pathogenicity in plant-infecting fungi. This high level of structural variation confers a methodological challenge for population genomic analyses. Variant discovery from population sequencing data is typically achieved using established pipelines based on the mapping of short reads to a reference genome. These pipelines have been developed, and extensively used, for eukaryote genomes of both plants and animals, to retrieve single nucleotide polymorphisms and short insertions and deletions. However, they do not permit the inference of large-scale genomic structural variation, as this task typically requires the alignment of complete genome sequences. Here, we compare traditional variant discovery approaches to a pipeline based on de novo genome assembly of short read data followed by whole genome alignment, using simulated data sets with properties mimicking that of fungal pathogen genomes. We show that the latter approach exhibits levels of performance comparable to that of read-mapping based methodologies, when used on sequence data with sufficient coverage. We argue that this approach further allows additional types of genomic diversity to be explored, in particular as long-read third-generation sequencing technologies are becoming increasingly available to generate population genomic data.

Interspecific Gene Exchange Introduces High Genetic Variability in Crop Pathogen.

Genome analyses have revealed a profound role of hybridization and introgression in the evolution of many eukaryote lineages, including fungi. The impact of recurrent introgression on fungal evolution however remains elusive. Here, we analyzed signatures of introgression along the genome of the fungal wheat pathogen Zymoseptoria tritici. We applied a comparative population genomics approach, including genome data from five Zymoseptoria species, to characterize the distribution and composition of introgressed regions representing segments with an exceptional haplotype pattern. These regions are found throughout the genome, comprising 5% of the total genome and overlapping with > 1,000 predicted genes. We performed window-based phylogenetic analyses along the genome to distinguish regions which have a monophyletic or nonmonophyletic origin with Z. tritici sequences. A majority of nonmonophyletic windows overlap with the highly variable regions suggesting that these originate from introgression. We verified that incongruent gene genealogies do not result from incomplete lineage sorting by comparing the observed and expected length distribution of haplotype blocks resulting from incomplete lineage sorting. Although protein-coding genes are not enriched in these regions, we identify 18 that encode putative virulence determinants. Moreover, we find an enrichment of transposable elements in these regions implying that hybridization may contribute to the horizontal spread of transposable elements. We detected a similar pattern in the closely related species Zymoseptoria ardabiliae, suggesting that hybridization is widespread among these closely related grass pathogens. Overall, our results demonstrate a significant impact of recurrent hybridization on overall genome evolution of this important wheat pathogen.

Crop-to-wild gene flow and its fitness consequences for a wild fruit tree: Towards a comprehensive conservation strategy of the wild apple in Europe.

Crop-to-wild gene flow can reduce the fitness and genetic integrity of wild species. Malus sylvestris, the European crab-apple fruit tree in particular, is threatened by the disappearance of its habitat and by gene flow from its domesticated relative, Malus domestica. With the aims of evaluating threats for M. sylvestris and of formulating recommendations for its conservation, we studied here, using microsatellite markers and growth experiments: (i) hybridization rates in seeds and trees from a French forest and in seeds used for replanting crab apples in agrosystems and in forests, (ii) the impact of the level of M. domestica ancestry on individual tree fitness and (iii) pollen dispersal abilities in relation to crop-to-wild gene flow. We found substantial contemporary crop-to-wild gene flow in crab-apple tree populations and superior fitness of hybrids compared to wild seeds and seedlings. Using paternity analyses, we showed that pollen dispersal could occur up to 4 km and decreased with tree density. The seed network furnishing the wild apple reintroduction agroforestry programmes was found to suffer from poor genetic diversity, introgressions and species misidentification. Overall, our findings indicate supported threats for the European wild apple steering us to provide precise recommendations for its conservation.