Relationship between Hypoxia and Hypercapnia Tolerance and Life Expectancy.

The review discusses the potential relationship between hypoxia resistance and longevity, the influence of carbon dioxide on the mechanisms of aging of the mammalian organism, and intermittent hypercapnic-hypoxic effects on the signaling pathways of aging mechanisms. In the article, we focused on the potential mechanisms of the gero-protective efficacy of carbon dioxide when combined with hypoxia. The review summarizes the possible influence of intermittent hypoxia and hypercapnia on aging processes in the nervous system. We considered the perspective variants of the application of hypercapnic-hypoxic influences for achieving active longevity and the prospects for the possibilities of developing hypercapnic-hypoxic training methods.

Genome Announcement: Draft Genome Assembly of Heterodera humuli Generated Using Long-Read Sequencing.

The hop cyst nematode, Heterodera humuli, is the most common plant-parasitic nematode associated with hop worldwide. This study reports the draft genome of H. humuli generated on the PacBio Sequel IIe System with the ultra-low DNA input HiFi sequencing method, and the corresponding genome annotation. This genome resource will help further studies on H. humuli and other cyst nematodes.

Blind fish have cells that see light.

Most animals on earth have evolved under daily light-dark cycles and consequently possess a circadian clock which regulates much of their biology, from cellular processes to behaviour. There are however some animals that have invaded dark ecosystems and have adapted to an apparently arrhythmic environment. One such example is the Mexican blind cavefish Astyanax mexicanus, a species complex with over 30 different isolated cave types, including the founding surface river fish. These cavefish have evolved numerous fascinating adaptations to the dark, such as loss of eyes, reduced sleep phenotype and alterations in their clock and light biology. While cavefish are an excellent model for studying circadian adaptations to the dark, their rarity and long generational time makes many studies challenging. To overcome these limitations, we established embryonic cell cultures from cavefish strains and assessed their potential as tools for circadian and light experiments. Here, we show that despite originating from animals with no eyes, cavefish cells in culture are directly light responsive and show an endogenous circadian rhythm, albeit that light sensitivity is relatively reduced in cave strain cells. Expression patterns are similar to adult fish, making these cavefish cell lines a useful tool for further circadian and molecular studies.

Strongly enhanced sensitivities of CMOS compatible plasmonic titanium nitride nanohole arrays for refractive index sensing under oblique incidence.

Titanium nitride (TiN) is a complementary metal-oxide-semiconductor (CMOS) compatible material with large potential for the fabrication of plasmonic structures suited for device integration. However, the comparatively large optical losses can be detrimental for application. This work reports a CMOS compatible TiN nanohole array (NHA) on top of a multilayer stack for potential use in integrated refractive index sensing with high sensitivities at wavelengths between 800 and 1500 nm. The stack, consisting of the TiN NHA on a silicon dioxide (SiO2) layer with Si as substrate (TiN NHA/SiO2/Si), is prepared using an industrial CMOS compatible process. The TiN NHA/SiO2/Si shows Fano resonances in reflectance spectra under oblique excitation, which are well reproduced by simulation using both finite difference time domain (FDTD) and rigorous coupled-wave analysis (RCWA) methods. The sensitivities derived from spectroscopic characterizations increase with the increasing incident angle and match well with the simulated sensitivities. Our systematic simulation-based investigation of the sensitivity of the TiN NHA/SiO2/Si stack under varied conditions reveals that very large sensitivities up to 2305 nm per refractive index unit (nm RIU-1) are predicted when the refractive index of superstrate is similar to that of the SiO2 layer. We analyze in detail how the interplay between plasmonic and photonic resonances such as surface plasmon polaritons (SPPs), localized surface plasmon resonances (LSPRs), Rayleigh Anomalies (RAs), and photonic microcavity modes (Fabry-Pérot resonances) contributes to this result. This work not only reveals the tunability of TiN nanostructures for plasmonic applications but also paves the way to explore efficient devices for sensing in broad conditions.

The Role of microRNAs in Epigenetic Regulation of Signaling Pathways in Neurological Pathologies.

In recent times, there has been a significant increase in researchers' interest in the functions of microRNAs and the role of these molecules in the pathogenesis of many multifactorial diseases. This is related to the diagnostic and prognostic potential of microRNA expression levels as well as the prospects of using it in personalized targeted therapy. This review of the literature analyzes existing scientific data on the involvement of microRNAs in the molecular and cellular mechanisms underlying the development of pathologies such as Alzheimer's disease, cerebral ischemia and reperfusion injury, and dysfunction of the blood-brain barrier.

Genome Announcement: The Draft Genome of the Carrot Cyst Nematode Heterodera Carotae.

Heterodera carotae, the carrot cyst nematode, is a significant pest affecting carrot globally. Here we present the draft genome of H. carotae, which was generated from short read libraries from Illumina HiSeq technology, and the corresponding genome annotation.

Rigorous coupled-wave analysis of a multi-layered plasmonic integrated refractive index sensor.

We apply the rigorous coupled-wave analysis (RCWA) to the design of a multi-layer plasmonic refractive index sensor based on metallic nanohole arrays integrated with a Ge-on-Si photodetector. RCWA simulations benefit from modularity, frequency-domain computation, and a relatively simple computational setup. These features make the application of RCWA particularly interesting in the case of the simulation and optimization of multi-layered devices in conjunction with plasmonic nanostructures, where other methods can be computationally too expensive for multi-parameter optimization. Our application example serves as a demonstration that RCWA can be utilized as a low-cost, efficient method for device engineering.

Growth, Sporulation, and Pathogenicity of the Raspberry Pathogen Phytophthora rubi Under Different Temperature and Moisture Regimes.

Phytophthora root rot of raspberry, which is mostly caused by Phytophthora rubi, is a significant issue for the Washington State red raspberry industry. Considered a cool weather pathogen, it is often assumed that it is most active and infective during the cool, wet winters of the region when soil temperatures range from 5 to 10°C; however, there are little data to support this view. More recent research has found that symptoms of root disease during late summer were strongly associated with P. rubi. Therefore, experiments were conducted at four temperatures from 5 to 20°C to evaluate the effects of temperature on P. rubi mycelial growth and sporulation and the effects of both temperature and soil moisture on the pathogenicity of P. rubi on red raspberry. At 20°C, P. rubi grew fastest and sporulated the most heavily. However, disease was most severe at both 15 and 20°C. The soil moisture parameters tested did not affect the pathogenicity results. These results show that P. rubi is more likely to infect during the spring and summer months (from May through September), when soil temperatures are consistently in the range of 15 to 20°C.

Development of the Astyanax mexicanus circadian clock and non-visual light responses.

Most animals and plants live on the planet exposed to periods of rhythmic light and dark. As such, they have evolved endogenous circadian clocks to regulate their physiology rhythmically, and non-visual light detection mechanisms to set the clock to the environmental light-dark cycle. In the case of fish, circadian pacemakers are not only present in the majority of tissues and cells, but these tissues are themselves directly light-sensitive, expressing a wide range of opsin photopigments. This broad non-visual light sensitivity exists to set the clock, but also impacts a wide range of fundamental cell biological processes, such as DNA repair regulation. In this context, Astyanax mexicanus is a very intriguing model system with which to explore non-visual light detection and circadian clock function. Previous work has shown that surface fish possess the same directly light entrainable circadian clocks, described above. The same is true for cave strains of Astyanax in the laboratory, though no daily rhythms have been observed under natural dark conditions in Mexico. There are, however, clear alterations in the cave strain light response and changes to the circadian clock, with a difference in phase of peak gene expression and a reduction in amplitude. In this study, we expand these early observations by exploring the development of non-visual light sensitivity and clock function between surface and cave populations. When does the circadian pacemaker begin to oscillate during development, and are there differences between the various strains? Is the difference in acute light sensitivity, seen in adults, apparent from the earliest stages of development? Our results show that both cave and surface populations must experience daily light exposure to establish a larval gene expression rhythm. These oscillations begin early, around the third day of development in all strains, but gene expression rhythms show a significantly higher amplitude in surface fish larvae. In addition, the light induction of clock genes is developmentally delayed in cave populations. Zebrafish embryonic light sensitivity has been shown to be critical not only for clock entrainment, but also for transcriptional activation of DNA repair processes. Similar downstream transcriptional responses to light also occur in Astyanax. Interestingly, the establishment of the adult timing profile of clock gene expression takes several days to become apparent. This fact may provide mechanistic insight into the key differences between the cave and surface fish clock mechanisms.

Short-Term Effects of Sublethal Doses of Nematicides on Meloidogyne incognita.

Meloidogyne species are one of the most important groups of plant-parasitic nematodes globally because of their ability to damage most cultivated plants. Although they are widespread and economically important, there are limited control measures to combat these nematodes. New nonfumigant nematicides have been discovered that have the potential to be widely utilized for the management of plant-parasitic nematodes. Because of the longer half-lives in soil and lower toxicity of new nematicides compared with traditional fumigant and nonfumigant nematicides, understanding how nematodes respond to sublethal doses of nematicides is imperative to understanding whether nematicide resistance has the potential to develop. Characterizing responses of nematodes to sublethal doses will provide the foundation for future work, such as gene expression studies. In this study, the nematicides oxamyl (Vydate), fluazaindolizine (Salibro), fluensulfone (Nimitz), and fluopyram (Velum), were evaluated to understand how sublethal doses affect the fecundity and mobility of Meloidogyne incognita second-stage juveniles (J2). Using a microwell assay system, dose-response curves for each nematicide were established for M. incognita J2. Fluopyram was the most toxic nematicide, with effective doses up to 230 times lower than that of other nematicides. The other nematicides had predicted ED50 values (effective doses that resulted in 50% of the population becoming inactive) of 89.4, 131.7, and 180.6 ppm for oxamyl, fluensulfone, and fluazaindolizine, respectively. The 24-h ED50 of each nematicide was then used in both motility and infectivity assays. The motility and activity of M. incognita J2 exposed to ED50 doses of fluazaindolizine and fluensulfone was significantly reduced, with nematodes initially being motile but eventually becoming inactive. However, the motility of M. incognita J2 exposed to ED50 doses of fluopyram and oxamyl was not different from a water control. In a pot assay, M. incognita J2 exposed to ED50 doses of fluazaindolizine, oxamyl, and fluensulfone were unable to reproduce on tomato, with reproduction factors (RF = final population density/initial population density) of 0 to 0.03. Fluopyram did not reduce reproduction of M. incognita, with a mean RF of 38.7 ± 4.5, which was similar to the RF of 46.3 ± 4.6 for the water control. This study is the first comprehensive evaluation of M. incognita activity, motility, and fecundity after exposure to the traditional nematicide, oxamyl, as well as three new nematicides, fluazaindolizine, fluopyram, and fluensulfone.

Developmental Dynamics of Meloidogyne hapla in Washington Wine Grapes.

Meloidogyne hapla is the most prevalent plant-parasitic nematode in Washington state wine grape vineyards. Understanding the developmental dynamics of M. hapla can improve the timing of diagnostic sampling and nematicide application. Three Vitis vinifera vineyards in Washington were sampled March 2015 to March 2017 to determine the developmental dynamics of M. hapla by measuring second-stage juveniles (J2) in soil, eggs and adult females in roots, and fine root tips. A model of M. hapla J2 development based on soil growing degree days using a base temperature (Tb) of 0°C (GDDsoil) and a start date of 1 March was developed. This model was validated at two additional vineyards in Washington and was robust with R2 values > 0.74. M. hapla has one generation per year and overwinters primarily as the J2 infective stage. Juvenile populations declined after 1 March, reaching their lowest density in early July and reaching a maximum density over the winter. M. hapla egg and root tip densities reached a maximum in early August. The number of females per root tip did not vary throughout the year. A single generation with defined peaks in J2 population densities will allow for specific timing of nematicide interventions.

Impact of Globodera ellingtonae on yield of potato (Solanum tuberosum).

Globodera ellingtonae was described from Oregon and Idaho in 2012. Due to the close phylogenetic relationship of this nematode to the potato cyst nematodes G. pallida and G. rostochiensis, and evidence that G. ellingtonae reproduces on potato (Solanum tuberosum), potential damaging effects to potato by this nematode are of great concern. To evaluate the pathogenic effects of G. ellingtonae on potato, five field and two microplot trials were conducted over a four-year period including comparisons of a range of G. ellingtonae initial population densities (Pi) and potato cultivars. In two field trials, potato 'Russet Burbank' was inoculated with Pi of G. ellingtonae ranging from 0 to 80 eggs/g soil; a similar trial was conducted with potato 'Désirée.' In another field trial, potato cultivars varying in maturity lengths were either inoculated (80 eggs/g soil) or not with G. ellingtonae. In a final field trial, 'Ranger Russet' was inoculated with Pi of G. ellingtonae ranging from 0 to 360 eggs/g soil. Additionally, Russet Burbank was inoculated with G. ellingtonae Pi ranging from 0 to 169 eggs/g soil in microplots. In all trials, data on tuber yield, aboveground biomass, final eggs/cyst, final population densities (Pf), and reproduction factor (RF = Pf/Pi) were collected. In only two of six trials conducted with increasing levels of Pi, was there a significant negative correlation between Pi of G. ellingtonae and yield of potato. Based on the linear regression model of tuber yield on logPi for Russet Burbank, 30.5 to 40.9% yield loss was predicted at a Pi of 40 and 80 eggs/g soil, respectively, and for Ranger Russet, 16.5 and 19.7% yield loss was predicted at a Pi of 40 and 80 eggs/g soil, respectively. None of the potato cultivars inoculated with 80 G. ellingtonae eggs/g soil had significantly reduced yields compared to non-inoculated plants. Reproduction factor values across trials ranged from 4.0 to 8.3 when inoculated with Pi of 40 eggs/g soil, demonstrating that the nematode successfully invaded and reproduced on potato in all trials. Care should be taken in extrapolating the results from these experiments conducted in Oregon to probable effects of G. ellingtonae on potato in other environments.KeywordsPotato, Damage, Globodera, Regression.Globodera ellingtonae was described from Oregon and Idaho in 2012. Due to the close phylogenetic relationship of this nematode to the potato cyst nematodes G. pallida and G. rostochiensis, and evidence that G. ellingtonae reproduces on potato (Solanum tuberosum), potential damaging effects to potato by this nematode are of great concern. To evaluate the pathogenic effects of G. ellingtonae on potato, five field and two microplot trials were conducted over a four-year period including comparisons of a range of G. ellingtonae initial population densities (Pi) and potato cultivars. In two field trials, potato 'Russet Burbank' was inoculated with Pi of G. ellingtonae ranging from 0 to 80 eggs/g soil; a similar trial was conducted with potato 'Désirée.' In another field trial, potato cultivars varying in maturity lengths were either inoculated (80 eggs/g soil) or not with G. ellingtonae. In a final field trial, 'Ranger Russet' was inoculated with Pi of G. ellingtonae ranging from 0 to 360 eggs/g soil. Additionally, Russet Burbank was inoculated with G. ellingtonae Pi ranging from 0 to 169 eggs/g soil in microplots. In all trials, data on tuber yield, aboveground biomass, final eggs/cyst, final population densities (Pf), and reproduction factor (RF = Pf/Pi) were collected. In only two of six trials conducted with increasing levels of Pi, was there a significant negative correlation between Pi of G. ellingtonae and yield of potato. Based on the linear regression model of tuber yield on logPi for Russet Burbank, 30.5 to 40.9% yield loss was predicted at a Pi of 40 and 80 eggs/g soil, respectively, and for Ranger Russet, 16.5 and 19.7% yield loss was predicted at a Pi of 40 and 80 eggs/g soil, respectively. None of the potato cultivars inoculated with 80 G. ellingtonae eggs/g soil had significantly reduced yields compared to non-inoculated plants. Reproduction factor values across trials ranged from 4.0 to 8.3 when inoculated with Pi of 40 eggs/g soil, demonstrating that the nematode successfully invaded and reproduced on potato in all trials. Care should be taken in extrapolating the results from these experiments conducted in Oregon to probable effects of G. ellingtonae on potato in other environments.KeywordsPotato, Damage, Globodera, Regression.

Genome Announcement: The Draft Genomes of Two Radopholus similis populations from Costa Rica.

Radopholus similis is an economically important pest of both banana and citrus in tropical regions. Here we present draft genomes from two populations of R. similis from Costa Rica that were created and assembled using short read libraries from Illumina HiSeq technology.

Populations of Phytophthora rubi Show Little Differentiation and High Rates of Migration Among States in the Western United States.

Population genetics is a powerful tool to understand patterns and evolutionary processes that are involved in plant-pathogen emergence and adaptation to agricultural ecosystems. We are interested in studying the population dynamics of Phytophthora rubi, the causal agent of Phytophthora root rot in raspberry. P. rubi is found in the western United States, where most of the fresh and processed raspberries are produced. We used genotyping-by-sequencing to characterize genetic diversity in populations of P. rubi sampled in the United States and other countries. Our results confirm that P. rubi is a monophyletic species with complete lineage sorting from its sister taxon P. fragariae. Overall, populations of P. rubi show low genetic diversity across the western United States. Demographic analyses suggest that populations of P. rubi from the western United States are the source of pathogen migration to Europe. We found no evidence for population differentiation at a global or regional (western United States) level. Finally, our results provide evidence of migration from California and Oregon into Washington. This report provides new insights into the evolution and structure of global and western United States populations of the raspberry pathogen P. rubi, indicating that human activity might be involved in moving the pathogen among regions and fields.

Resistance of Potato Breeding Clones and Cultivars to Three Species of Potato Cyst Nematode.

In the United States, potato cyst nematodes Globodera rostochiensis and G. pallida are quarantined pests. A new cyst nematode species, Globodera ellingtonae, discovered in Oregon and Idaho, reproduces well on potato but is not currently a quarantine pest. Identifying resistance to all three Globodera spp. would provide a valuable management tool. Thirteen breeding clones and nine cultivars were evaluated in Oregon, Idaho, and New York laboratories where the nematode populations are maintained. Minitubers or tissue culture plants were planted into pots and inoculated with eggs in replicated experiments. Results indicated that five entries were partially resistant or resistant to all three species, while another five were resistant or partially resistant to G. rostochiensis and G. ellingtonae. Resistance to G. rostochiensis pathotypes Ro1 and Ro4 is controlled by the H1 gene and this study suggests that H1 may confer resistance to G. ellingtonae as well. Observed resistance to G. pallida was lower relative to the levels of resistance observed for G. rostochiensis and G. ellingtonae. Germplasm with G. pallida or G. ellingtonae resistance will be used in hybridizations to develop russet-skinned cultivars with long tubers which represent the predominant market class in western U.S. production, and to further explore the basis of potato resistance to Globodera spp.

Late-summer Disease Symptoms in Western Washington Red Raspberry Fields Associated with Co-Occurrence of Phytophthora rubi, Verticillium dahliae, and Pratylenchus penetrans, but not Raspberry bushy dwarf virus.

Sixty percent of the $109 million processed red raspberry industry of the United States occurs in northern Washington State. In 2012, late-summer symptoms of vascular wilt and root disease were observed in many raspberry plantings. These symptoms were initially attributed to Verticillium dahliae. However, diagnostic tests for the pathogen were often contradictory and other soilborne pathogens (Phytophthora rubi and Pratylenchus penetrans) or Raspberry bushy dwarf virus (RBDV) might also have been involved. Therefore, a survey was conducted in 2013 and 2014 to (i) establish the incidence and soil population levels of V. dahliae in red raspberry production fields, (ii) compare among diagnostic methods and laboratories for detecting and quantifying V. dahliae from raspberry field soil, and (iii) assess which pathogens are associated with late-summer disease symptoms of raspberry. Plant and soil samples were collected from 51 disease sites and 20 healthy sites located in 24 production fields. Samples were analyzed for the presence and quantity of each pathogen using traditional plating and extraction methods (V. dahliae, P. rubi, and P. penetrans), quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) (V. dahliae and P. rubi), and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (RBDV). Results showed that V. dahliae was present in 88% of the production fields and that detection of the pathogen differed by method and by laboratory: qPCR detected V. dahliae in the soil from approximately three times as many sites (51 of 71 total sites) as by plating on NP10 semi-selective medium (15 of 71 total sites). Soil populations of V. dahliae were slightly greater at disease sites, but the pathogen was detected with similar frequency from healthy sites and it was rarely isolated from diseased plants (4%). P. rubi, P. penetrans, and RBDV were also common in production fields (79, 91, and 53% of fields, respectively). Both P. rubi (soil and root samples) and P. penetrans (root populations only), but not RBDV, were more frequently found at disease sites than healthy sites, and the amount of P. rubi detected by qPCR was greater from disease sites than healthy sites. In addition, P. rubi was isolated from 27% of the symptomatic plants located at disease sites. Regardless of detection method, V. dahliae, P. rubi, and P. penetrans, either with or without RBDV, were more likely to co-occur at disease sites (73%) than healthy sites (35%), suggesting that a soilborne disease complex is present in raspberry production fields. Results indicate that P. rubi is the primary pathogen most strongly associated with late-summer symptoms of disease, but root populations of P. penetrans and higher soil populations of V. dahliae may also be of concern. Therefore, disease control methods should focus on all three soilborne pathogens.

Whole Genome Sequences of the Raspberry and Strawberry Pathogens Phytophthora rubi and P. fragariae.

Phytophthora rubi and P. fragariae are two closely related oomycete plant pathogens that exhibit strong morphological and physiological similarities but are specialized to infect different hosts of economic importance, namely, raspberry and strawberry. Here, we report the draft genome sequences of these two Phytophthora species as a first step toward understanding the genomic processes underlying plant host adaptation in these pathogens.

Developmental Dynamics of Globodera ellingtonae in Field-Grown Potato.

Globodera ellingtonae is a recently described nematode parasite of potato, which is closely related to the economically significant potato cyst nematodes G. rostochiensis and G. pallida. Because of the close relationship of G. ellingtonae to the potato cyst nematodes, a greater understanding of its biology is critical. Two experiments were conducted in Oregon to explore the developmental biology of G. ellingtonae in field-grown potato. The first experiment was conducted in 2013 and 2014 to determine the developmental timing of G. ellingtonae life stages and reproduction by inoculating potato with soil containing cysts followed by weekly collection of soil and root samples. Life stages; second-stage juveniles (J2) in soil and roots, third-stage juveniles (J3) and fourth-stage (J4) females and males in roots, males and females or cysts in soil, and egg number and developmental state were quantified. Normalizing across years using accumulated developmental degree days above 6°C (DD6), J2 of G. ellingtonae were found in soil from 41 to 588 DD6; two peaks of J2 invasion of roots were observed. The first adult females were observed at 387 and 449 DD6 in 2013 and 2014, respectively. The next generation of eggs was first observed from 675 to 854 DD6 and 50% egg development (containing a vermiform juvenile) occurred at approximately 920 DD6. A second J2 hatch was observed in both years at 927 to 1,073 DD6. The developmental dynamics of G. ellingtonae observed here are similar to those reported for G. rostochiensis and G. pallida from several geographical locations. In the second experiment, the effect of potato and bare soil on G. ellingtonae egg hatch was evaluated; in 2014 and 2015, packages containing cysts in soil were buried under potato or in bare soil at the time of planting and eggs per cyst determined weekly. Across years, a significant reduction in eggs per cysts under potato (>50%) was observed 35 days after planting (DAP) and, at 63 DAP, eggs per cyst were reduced by 76 to 96% compared with initial egg per cyst densities. In bare soil, the maximum reduction in densities of eggs per cyst was 55 to 73%. This annual reduction in egg numbers of G. ellingtonae in bare soil is similar to that reported for G. pallida and G. rostochiensis.

Annual and Perennial Alleyway Cover Crops Vary in Their Effects on Pratylenchus penetrans in Pacific Northwest Red Raspberry (Rubus idaeus).

Cover crops can provide many benefits to agroecosystems, such as lessening soil erosion and increasing water infiltration. However, cover crop use is not common in established red raspberry (Rubus idaeus) fields in the Pacific Northwest. Raspberry growers are concerned about resource competition between the cover crop and raspberry crop, as well as increasing population densities of the plant-parasitic nematode Pratylenchus penetrans, which has a wide host range and has been shown to reduce raspberry plant vigor and yield. A 2-yr study was conducted in an established 'Meeker' raspberry field in northwest Washington to evaluate the effects of nine alleyway cover crops, mowed weed cover, and the industry standard of bare cultivated soil on P. penetrans population dynamics, raspberry yield, and fruit quality. The host status for P. penetrans of cover crops included in the field experiment, as well as Brassica juncea 'Pacific Gold' and Sinapis alba 'Ida Gold', was also evaluated in greenhouse experiments. In the field experiment, P. penetrans population densities did not increase in alleyway cover crop roots over time or in alleyway soil surrounding cover crop roots (means range from 0 to 116 P. penetrans/100 g of soil) compared with the bare cultivated control (means range from 2 to 55 P. penetrans/100 g of soil). Pratylenchus penetrans populations did not increase over time in raspberry grown adjacent to alleyways with cover crops (means range from 1,081 to 6,120 P. penetrans/g of root) compared with those grown adjacent to bare cultivated soil alleyways (means range from 2,391 to 5,536 P. penetrans/g of root). Raspberry grown adjacent to bare cultivated soil did not have significantly higher yield or fruit quality than raspberry grown adjacent to cover crops in either year of the experiment. In the greenhouse assays, 'Norwest 553' wheat and a perennial ryegrass mix were poor hosts for P. penetrans, whereas 'Nora' and 'TAM 606' oat and 'Pacific Gold' and 'Ida Gold' mustard were good hosts. These results support the idea that the potential benefits of alleyway cover crops outweigh the potential risk of increasing P. penetrans population densities and do not compromise raspberry yield or fruit quality.

Draft Transcriptome of Globodera ellingtonae.

Globodera ellingtonae is a newly described cyst nematode found in Idaho, Oregon, and Argentina. Here we present the first transcriptome assembly of G. ellingtonae, providing a valuable resource for comparing the evolution of expressed genes between potato cyst nematode species.