Motors involved in spindle assembly and chromosome segregation.

During the past two years, major advances have been made in our understanding of the role of motor proteins in chromosome-microtubule interactions in the spindle. The discovery of kinesin-like proteins (KLPs) associated with chromosome arms has shed some light on the mechanism of chromosome congression and the establishment of spindle bipolarity. Recent results also indicate that kinetochore KLPs may tether the ends of growing and shrinking microtubules to kinetochores during chromosome movements. Finally, new data indicate that phosphorylation of KLPs may be one of the mechanisms by which they are targeted to specific spindle domains.

Ran-GTP coordinates regulation of microtubule nucleation and dynamics during mitotic-spindle assembly.

It was recently reported that GTP-bound Ran induces microtubule and pseudo-spindle assembly in mitotic egg extracts in the absence of chromosomes and centrosomes, and that chromosomes induce the assembly of spindle microtubules in these extracts through generation of Ran-GTP. Here we examine the effects of Ran-GTP on microtubule nucleation and dynamics and show that Ran-GTP has independent effects on both the nucleation activity of centrosomes and the stability of centrosomal microtubules. We also show that inhibition of Ran-GTP production, even in the presence of duplicated centrosomes and kinetochores, prevents assembly of a bipolar spindle in M-phase extracts.

Control of microtubule dynamics by the antagonistic activities of XMAP215 and XKCM1 in Xenopus egg extracts.

Microtubules are dynamic polymers that move stochastically between periods of growth and shrinkage, a property known as dynamic instability. Here, to investigate the mechanisms regulating microtubule dynamics in Xenopus egg extracts, we have cloned the complementary DNA encoding the microtubule-associated protein XMAP215 and investigated the function of the XMAP215 protein. Immunodepletion of XMAP215 indicated that it is a major microtubule-stabilizing factor in Xenopus egg extracts. During interphase, XMAP215 stabilizes microtubules primarily by opposing the activity of the destabilizing factor XKCM1, a member of the kinesin superfamily. These results indicate that microtubule dynamics in Xenopus egg extracts are regulated by a balance between a stabilizing factor, XMAP215, and a destabilizing factor, XKCM1.

Chromosomes take the lead in spindle assembly.

Several kinesin-like motor proteins have recently been found associated with chromosome arms. They seem to be involved in the so-called 'polar ejection forces' that contribute to the congression of chromosomes on the metaphase plate, and at least one of them is essential for the maintenance of spindle bipolarity. The discovery of these molecules changes our view of the mechanism of spindle assembly and chromosome movement.

Orientation of spindle axis and distribution of plasma membrane proteins during cell division in polarized MDCKII cells.

MDCKII cells differentiate into a simple columnar epithelium when grown on a permeable support; the monolayer is polarized for transport and secretion. Individual cells within the monolayer continue to divide at a low rate without disturbing the function of the epithelium as a barrier to solutes. This presents an interesting model for the study of mitosis in a differentiated epithelium which we have investigated by confocal immunofluorescence microscopy. We monitored the distribution of microtubules, centrioles, nucleus, tight junctions, and plasma membrane proteins that are specifically targeted to the apical and basolateral domains. The stable interphase microtubule cytoskeleton was rapidly disassembled at prophase onset and reassembled at cytokinesis. As the interphase microtubules disassembled at prophase, the centrioles moved from their interphase position at the apical membrane to the nucleus and acquired the ability to organize microtubule asters. Orientation of the spindle parallel to the plane of the monolayer occurred between late prophase and metaphase and persisted through cytokinesis. The cleavage furrow formed asymmetrically perpendicular to the plane of the monolayer initiating at the basolateral side and proceeding to the apical domain. The interphase microtubule network reformed after the centrioles migrated from the spindle poles to resume their interphase apical position. Tight junctions (ZO-1), which separate the apical from the basolateral domains, remained assembled throughout all phases of mitosis. E-cadherin and a 58-kD antigen maintained their basolateral plasma membrane distributions, and a 114-kD antigen remained polarized to the apical domain. These proteins were useful for monitoring the changes in shape of the mitotic cells relative to neighboring cells, especially during telophase when the cell shape changes dramatically. We discuss the changes in centriole position during the cell cycle, mechanisms of spindle orientation, and how the maintenance of polarized plasma membrane domains through mitosis may facilitate the rapid reformation of the polarized interphase cytoplasm.

XMAP310: a Xenopus rescue-promoting factor localized to the mitotic spindle.

To understand the role of microtubule-associated proteins (MAPs) in the regulation of microtubule (MT) dynamics we have characterized MAPs prepared from Xenopus laevis eggs (Andersen, S.S.L., B. Buendia, J.E. Domínguez, A. Sawyer, and E. Karsenti. 1994. J. Cell Biol. 127:1289-1299). Here we report on the purification and characterization of a 310-kD MAP (XMAP310) that localizes to the nucleus in interphase and to mitotic spindle MTs in mitosis. XMAP310 is present in eggs, oocytes, a Xenopus tissue culture cell line, testis, and brain. We have purified XMAP310 to homogeneity from egg extracts. The purified protein cross-links pure MTs. Analysis of the effect of this protein on MT dynamics by time-lapse video microscopy has shown that it increases the rescue frequency 5-10-fold and decreases the shrinkage rate twofold. It has no effect on the growth rate or the catastrophe frequency. Microsequencing data suggest that XMAP230 and XMAP310 are novel MAPs. Although the three Xenopus MAPs characterized so far, XMAP215 (Vasquez, R.J., D.L. Gard, and L. Cassimeris. 1994. J. Cell Biol. 127:985-993), XMAP230, and XMAP310 are localized to the mitotic spindle, they have distinct effects on MT dynamics. While XMAP215 promotes rapid MT growth, XMAP230 decreases the catastrophe frequency and XMAP310 increases the rescue frequency. This may have important implications for the regulation of MT dynamics during spindle morphogenesis and chromosome segregation.

Involvement of contractile proteins in the changes in consistency of oocyte nucleoplasm of the newt Pleurodeles waltlii.

In the present work, we show that actin is present in considerable quantities in the oocyte nucleus of the newt Pleurodeles waltlii. The nuclear sap, extracted in saline buffer containing Ca++, is fluid. DNAase I inhibition assays have shown that 90% of actin is under a globular state in such conditions. Chelation of Ca++ by EGTA leads to the formation of a nuclear gel composed of individual microfilaments. This nuclear gel contains approximately 50% of total nuclear actin in a filamentous form. Phalloidin, a drug known to stabilize F-actin, induces the formation of a network of actin cables in the nuclei. This network contains nearly 100% of total nuclear actin in the filamentous form. The observation of the cables in the electron microscope shows that they are made of tightly associated microfilaments to which RNP-like particles are bound. The actin antibodies stain the cables and the particles by the indirect immunoperoxidase technique; myosin antibodies mainly stain the particles. The formation of the phalloïdin-induced network seems to require the presence of Ca++, Mg++, and ATP. We propose a scheme for the regulation of the supramolecular forms of actin in oocyte nuclei in which a delicate equilibrium seems to exist between globular actin, microfilaments, and actin cables. This equilibrium would be controlled by the concentration of Ca++, ATP, and various actin-associated proteins.

Control of microtubule nucleation and stability in Madin-Darby canine kidney cells: the occurrence of noncentrosomal, stable detyrosinated microtubules.

The microtubule-nucleating activity of centrosomes was analyzed in fibroblastic (Vero) and in epithelial cells (PtK2, Madin-Darby canine kidney [MDCK]) by double-immunofluorescence labeling with anti-centrosome and antitubulin antibodies. Most of the microtubules emanated from the centrosomes in Vero cells, whereas the microtubule network of MDCK cells appeared to be noncentrosome nucleated and randomly organized. The pattern of microtubule organization in PtK2 cells was intermediate to the patterns observed in the typical fibroblastic and epithelial cells. The two centriole cylinders were tightly associated and located close to the nucleus in Vero and PtK2 cells. In MDCK cells, however, they were clearly separated and electron microscopy revealed that they nucleated only a few microtubules. The stability of centrosomal and noncentrosomal microtubules was examined by treatment of these different cell lines with various concentrations of nocodazole. 1.6 microM nocodazole induced an almost complete depolymerization of microtubules in Vero cells; some centrosome nucleated microtubules remained in PtK2 cells, while many noncentrosomal microtubules resisted that treatment in MDCK cells. Centrosomal and noncentrosomal microtubules regrew in MDCK cells with similar kinetics after release from complete disassembly by high concentrations of nocodazole (33 microM). During regrowth, centrosomal microtubules became resistant to 1.6 microM nocodazole before the noncentrosomal ones, although the latter eventually predominate. We suggest that in MDCK cells, microtubules grow and shrink as proposed by the dynamic instability model but the presence of factors prevents them from complete depolymerization. This creates seeds for reelongation that compete with nucleation off the centrosome. By using specific antibodies, we have shown that the abundant subset of nocodazole-resistant microtubules in MDCK cells contained detyrosinated alpha-tubulin (glu tubulin). On the other hand, the first microtubules to regrow after nocodazole removal contained only tyrosinated tubulin. Glu-tubulin became detectable only after 30 min of microtubule regrowth. This strongly supports the hypothesis that alpha-tubulin detyrosination occurs primarily on "long lived" microtubules and is not the cause of the stabilization process. This is also supported by the increased amount of glu-tubulin that we found in taxol-treated cells.

Structure of growing microtubule ends: two-dimensional sheets close into tubes at variable rates.

Observation of microtubule growth at different rates by cryo-electron microscopy reveals that the ends range from blunt to long, gently curved sheets. The mean sheet length increases with the growth rate while the width of the distributions increases with the extent of assembly. The combination of a concentration dependent growth rate of the tubulin sheet with a variable closure rate of the microtubule cylinder, results in a model in which stochastic fluctuations in sheet length and tubulin conformation confine GTP-tubulins to microtubule ends. We propose that the variability of microtubule growth rate observed by video microscopy (Gildersleeve, R. F., A. R. Cross, K. E. Cullen, A. P. Fagen, and R. C. Williams. 1992. J. Biol. Chem. 267: 7995-8006, and this study) is due to the variation in the rate of cylinder closure. The curvature of the sheets at the end of growing microtubules and the small oligomeric structures observed at the end of disassembling microtubules, indicate that tubulin molecules undergo conformational changes both during assembly and disassembly.

Regulation of the microtubule nucleating activity of centrosomes in Xenopus egg extracts: role of cyclin A-associated protein kinase.

Isolated centrosomes nucleate microtubules when incubated in pure tubulin solutions well below the critical concentration for spontaneous polymer assembly (approximately 15 microM instead of 60 microM). Treatment with urea (2-3 M) does not severely damage the centriole cylinders but inactivates their ability to nucleate microtubules even at high tubulin concentrations. Here we show that centrosomes inactivated by urea are functionally complemented in frog egg extracts. Centrosomes can then be reisolated on sucrose gradients and assayed in different concentrations of pure tubulin to quantify their nucleating activity. We show that the material that complements centrosomes is stored in a soluble form in the egg. Each frog egg contains enough material to complement greater than 6,000 urea-inactivated centrosomes. The material is heat inactivated above 56 degrees C. One can use this in vitro system to study how the microtubule nucleating activity of centrosomes is regulated. Native centrosomes require approximately 15 microM tubulin to begin nucleating microtubules, whereas centrosomes complemented in interphase extracts begin nucleating microtubules around 7-8 microM tubulin. Therefore, the critical tubulin concentrations for polymer assembly off native centrosomes is higher than that observed for the centrosomes first denatured and then complemented in egg extracts. In vivo, the microtubule nucleating activity of centrosomes seems to be regulated by phosphorylation at the onset of mitosis (Centonze, V. E., and G. G. Borisy. 1990. J. Cell Sci. 95:405-411). Since cyclins are major regulators of mitosis, we tested the effect of adding bacterially produced cyclins to interphase egg extracts. Both cyclin A and B activate an H1 kinase in the extracts. Cyclin A-associated kinase causes an increase in the microtubule nucleating activity of centrosomes complemented in the extract but cyclin B does not. The critical tubulin concentration for polymer assembly off centrosomes complemented in cyclin A-treated extracts is similar to that observed for centrosomes complemented in interphase extracts. However, centrosomes complemented in cyclin A treated extracts nucleate much more microtubules at high tubulin concentration. We define this as the "capacity" of centrosomes to nucleate microtubules. It seems that the microtubule nucleating activity of centrosomes can be defined by two distinct parameters: (a) the critical tubulin concentration at which they begin to nucleate microtubules and (b) their capacity to nucleate microtubules at high tubulin concentrations, the latter being modulated by phosphorylation.

TPX2, A novel xenopus MAP involved in spindle pole organization.

TPX2, the targeting protein for Xenopus kinesin-like protein 2 (Xklp2), was identified as a microtubule-associated protein that mediates the binding of the COOH-terminal domain of Xklp2 to microtubules (Wittmann, T., H. Boleti, C. Antony, E. Karsenti, and I. Vernos. 1998. J. Cell Biol. 143:673-685). Here, we report the cloning and functional characterization of Xenopus TPX2. TPX2 is a novel, basic 82.4-kD protein that is phosphorylated during mitosis in a microtubule-dependent way. TPX2 is nuclear during interphase and becomes localized to spindle poles in mitosis. Spindle pole localization of TPX2 requires the activity of the dynein-dynactin complex. In late anaphase TPX2 becomes relocalized from the spindle poles to the midbody. TPX2 is highly homologous to a human protein of unknown function and thus defines a new family of vertebrate spindle pole components. We investigated the function of TPX2 using spindle assembly in Xenopus egg extracts. Immunodepletion of TPX2 from mitotic egg extracts resulted in bipolar structures with disintegrating poles and a decreased microtubule density. Addition of an excess of TPX2 to spindle assembly reactions gave rise to monopolar structures with abnormally enlarged poles. We conclude that, in addition to its function in targeting Xklp2 to microtubule minus ends during mitosis, TPX2 also participates in the organization of spindle poles.

Structural transitions at microtubule ends correlate with their dynamic properties in Xenopus egg extracts.

Microtubules are dynamically unstable polymers that interconvert stochastically between growing and shrinking states by the addition and loss of subunits from their ends. However, there is little experimental data on the relationship between microtubule end structure and the regulation of dynamic instability. To investigate this relationship, we have modulated dynamic instability in Xenopus egg extracts by adding a catastrophe-promoting factor, Op18/stathmin. Using electron cryomicroscopy, we find that microtubules in cytoplasmic extracts grow by the extension of a two- dimensional sheet of protofilaments, which later closes into a tube. Increasing the catastrophe frequency by the addition of Op18/stathmin decreases both the length and frequency of the occurrence of sheets and increases the number of frayed ends. Interestingly, we also find that more dynamic populations contain more blunt ends, suggesting that these are a metastable intermediate between shrinking and growing microtubules. Our results demonstrate for the first time that microtubule assembly in physiological conditions is a two-dimensional process, and they suggest that the two-dimensional sheets stabilize microtubules against catastrophes. We present a model in which the frequency of catastrophes is directly correlated with the structural state of microtubule ends.

Interconversion of metaphase and interphase microtubule arrays, as studied by the injection of centrosomes and nuclei into Xenopus eggs.

We have designed experiments that distinguish centrosomal , nuclear, and cytoplasmic contributions to the assembly of the mitotic spindle. Mammalian centrosomes acting as microtubule-organizing centers were assayed by injection into Xenopus eggs either in a metaphase or an interphase state. Injection of partially purified centrosomes into interphase eggs induced the formation of extensive asters. Although centrosomes injected into unactivated eggs (metaphase) did not form asters, inhibition of centrosomes is not irreversible in metaphase cytoplasm: subsequent activation caused aster formation. When cytoskeletons containing nuclei and centrosomes were injected into the metaphase cytoplasm, they produced spindle-like structures with clearly defined poles. Electron microscopy revealed centrioles with nucleated microtubules. However, injection of nuclei prepared from karyoplasts that were devoid of centrosomes produced anastral microtubule arrays around condensing chromatin. Co-injection of karyoplast nuclei with centrosomes reconstituted the formation of spindle-like structures with well-defined poles. We conclude from these experiments that in mitosis, the centrosome acts as a microtubule-organizing center only in the proximity of the nucleus or chromatin, whereas in interphase it functions independently. The general implications of these results for the interconversion of metaphase and interphase microtubule arrays in all cells are discussed.

Role of the centrosome in organizing the interphase microtubule array: properties of cytoplasts containing or lacking centrosomes.

To study the role of the centrosome in microtubule organization in interphase cells, we developed a method for obtaining cytoplasts (cells lacking a nucleus) that did or did not contain centrosomes. After drug-induced microtubule depolymerization, cytoplasts with centrosomes made from sparsely plated cells reconstituted a microtubule array typical of normal cells. Under these conditions cytoplasts without centrosomes formed only a few scattered microtubules. This difference in degree of polymerization suggests that centrosomes affect not only the distribution but the amount of microtubules in cells. To our surprise, the extent of microtubules assembled increased with the cell density of the original culture. At confluent density, cytoplasts without centrosomes had many microtubules, equivalent to cytoplasts with centrosomes. The additional microtubules were arranged peripherally and differed from the centrosomal microtubules in their sensitivity to nocodazole. These and other results suggest that the centrosome stabilizes microtubules in the cell, perhaps by capping one end. Microtubules with greater sensitivity to nocodazole arise by virtue of change in the growth state of the cell and may represent free or uncapped polymers. These experiments suggest that the spatial arrangement of microtubules may change by shifting the total tubulin concentration or the critical concentration for assembly.

Respective roles of centrosomes and chromatin in the conversion of microtubule arrays from interphase to metaphase.

We report the results of studies in which partially purified centrosomes, nuclei, and DNA were injected into frog's eggs, which are naturally arrested in metaphase or interphase. These results have led to an independent assessment of the contributions of the centrosome and the chromatin to the formation of the mitotic spindle and suggest a simple explanation for the transition from interphase to metaphase microtubule arrays.

Control of microtubule dynamics and length by cyclin A- and cyclin B-dependent kinases in Xenopus egg extracts.

In eukaryotic cells, the onset of mitosis involves cyclin molecules which interact with proteins of the cdc2 family to produce active kinases. In vertebrate cells, cyclin A dependent kinases become active in S- and pro-phases, whereas a cyclin B-dependent kinase is mostly active in metaphase. It has recently been shown that, when added to Xenopus egg extracts, bacterially produced A- and B-type cyclins associate predominantly with the same kinase catalytic subunit, namely p34cdc2, and induce its histone H1 kinase activity with different kinetics. Here, we show that in the same cell free system, both the addition of cyclin A and cyclin B changes microtubule behavior. However, the cyclin A-dependent kinase does not induce a dramatic shortening of centrosome-nucleated microtubules whereas the cyclin B-dependent kinase does, as previously reported. Analysis of the parameters of microtubule dynamics by fluorescence video microscopy shows that the dramatic shortening induced by the cyclin B-dependent kinase is correlated with a several fold increase in catastrophe frequency, an effect not observed with the cyclin A-dependent kinase. Using a simple mathematical model, we show how the length distributions of centrosome-nucleated microtubules relate to the four parameters that describe microtubule dynamics. These four parameters define a threshold between unlimited microtubule growth and the establishment of steady-state dynamics, which implies that well defined steady-state length distributions can be produced by regulating precisely the respective values of the dynamical parameters. Moreover, the dynamical model predicts that increasing catastrophe frequency is more efficient than decreasing the rescue frequency to reduce the average steady state length of microtubules. These theoretical results are quantitatively confirmed by the experimental data.

Spindle assembly in Xenopus egg extracts: respective roles of centrosomes and microtubule self-organization.

In Xenopus egg extracts, spindles assembled around sperm nuclei contain a centrosome at each pole, while those assembled around chromatin beads do not. Poles can also form in the absence of chromatin, after addition of a microtubule stabilizing agent to extracts. Using this system, we have asked (a) how are spindle poles formed, and (b) how does the nucleation and organization of microtubules by centrosomes influence spindle assembly? We have found that poles are morphologically similar regardless of their origin. In all cases, microtubule organization into poles requires minus end-directed translocation of microtubules by cytoplasmic dynein, which tethers centrosomes to spindle poles. However, in the absence of pole formation, microtubules are still sorted into an antiparallel array around mitotic chromatin. Therefore, other activities in addition to dynein must contribute to the polarized orientation of microtubules in spindles. When centrosomes are present, they provide dominant sites for pole formation. Thus, in Xenopus egg extracts, centrosomes are not necessarily required for spindle assembly but can regulate the organization of microtubules into a bipolar array.

Localization of the kinesin-like protein Xklp2 to spindle poles requires a leucine zipper, a microtubule-associated protein, and dynein.

Xklp2 is a plus end-directed Xenopus kinesin-like protein localized at spindle poles and required for centrosome separation during spindle assembly in Xenopus egg extracts. A glutathione-S-transferase fusion protein containing the COOH-terminal domain of Xklp2 (GST-Xklp2-Tail) was previously found to localize to spindle poles (Boleti, H., E. Karsenti, and I. Vernos. 1996. Cell. 84:49-59). Now, we have examined the mechanism of localization of GST-Xklp2-Tail. Immunofluorescence and electron microscopy showed that Xklp2 and GST-Xklp2-Tail localize specifically to the minus ends of spindle pole and aster microtubules in mitotic, but not in interphase, Xenopus egg extracts. We found that dimerization and a COOH-terminal leucine zipper are required for this localization: a single point mutation in the leucine zipper prevented targeting. The mechanism of localization is complex and two additional factors in mitotic egg extracts are required for the targeting of GST-Xklp2-Tail to microtubule minus ends: (a) a novel 100-kD microtubule-associated protein that we named TPX2 (Targeting protein for Xklp2) that mediates the binding of GST-Xklp2-Tail to microtubules and (b) the dynein-dynactin complex that is required for the accumulation of GST-Xklp2-Tail at microtubule minus ends. We propose two molecular mechanisms that could account for the localization of Xklp2 to microtubule minus ends.

Taxol-induced microtubule asters in mitotic extracts of Xenopus eggs: requirement for phosphorylated factors and cytoplasmic dynein.

Taxol, a microtubule stabilizing drug, induces the formation of numerous microtubule asters in the cytoplasm of mitotic cells (De Brabander, M., G. Geuens, R. Nuydens, R. Willebrords, J. DeMey. 1981. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. 78:5608-5612). The center of these asters share with spindle poles some characteristics such as the presence of centrosomal material and calmodulin. We have recently reproduced the assembly of taxol asters in a cell-free system (Buendia, B., C. Antony, F. Verde, M. Bornens, and E. Karsenti. 1990. J. Cell Sci. 97:259-271) using extracts of Xenopus eggs. In this paper, we show that taxol aster assembly requires phosphorylation, and that they do not grow from preformed centers, but rather by a reorganization of microtubules first crosslinked into bundles. This process seems to involve sliding of microtubules along each other and we show that cytoplasmic dynein is required for taxol aster assembly. This result provides a possible functional basis to the recent findings, that dynein is present in the spindle and enriched near spindle poles (Pfarr, C. M., M. Cove, P. M. Grissom, T. S. Hays, M. E. Porter, and J. R. McIntosh. 1990. Nature (Lond.). 345:263-265; Steuer, E. R., L. Wordeman, T. A. Schroer, and M. P. Sheetz. 1990. Nature (Lond.). 345:266-268).

Cytoskeletal control of centrioles movement during the establishment of polarity in Madin-Darby canine kidney cells.

The two centrioles that are localized close to each other and to the nucleus in single Madin-Darby Canine kidney cells (MDCK) move apart by distances as large as 13 microns after the establishment of extensive cellular junctions. Microfilaments, and possibly microtubules appear to be responsible for this separation. In fully polarized cells, the centrioles are localized just beneath the apical membrane. After disruption of intercellular junctions in low calcium medium, the centrioles move back towards the cell center. This process requires intact microtubules but happens even in the absence of microfilaments. These results indicate that the position of centrioles is determined by opposing forces produced by microtubules and microfilaments and suggest that the balance between these forces is modulated by the assembly of cellular junctions. Centriole separation appears to be an early event in the process that precedes their final positioning in the apical-most region of the polarized cell.