Mechanisms of anion conduction by coupled glutamate transporters.

Excitatory amino acid transporters (EAATs) are essential for terminating glutamatergic synaptic transmission. They are not only coupled glutamate/Na(+)/H(+)/K(+) transporters but also function as anion-selective channels. EAAT anion channels regulate neuronal excitability, and gain-of-function mutations in these proteins result in ataxia and epilepsy. We have combined molecular dynamics simulations with fluorescence spectroscopy of the prokaryotic homolog GltPh and patch-clamp recordings of mammalian EAATs to determine how these transporters conduct anions. Whereas outward- and inward-facing GltPh conformations are nonconductive, lateral movement of the glutamate transport domain from intermediate transporter conformations results in formation of an anion-selective conduction pathway. Fluorescence quenching of inserted tryptophan residues indicated the entry of anions into this pathway, and mutations of homologous pore-forming residues had analogous effects on GltPh simulations and EAAT2/EAAT4 measurements of single-channel currents and anion/cation selectivities. These findings provide a mechanistic framework of how neurotransmitter transporters can operate as anion-selective and ligand-gated ion channels.

Differential effects of multiplicity of infection on Helicobacter pylori-induced signaling pathways and interleukin-8 gene transcription.

Interleukin-8 (IL-8) plays a central role in the pathogenesis of Helicobacter pylori infection. We used four different H. pylori strains isolated from patients with gastritis or duodenal ulcer disease to examine their differential effects on signaling pathways and IL-8 gene response in gastric epithelial cells. IL-8 mRNA level is elevated in response to high (100) multiplicity of infection (MOI) independent of cagA, vacA, and dupA gene characteristics. By lower MOIs (1 or 10), only cagA ( + ) strains significantly induce IL-8 gene expression. This is based on differential regulation of IL-8 promoter activity. Analysis of intracellular signaling pathways indicates that H. pylori clinical isolates induce IL-8 gene transcription through NF-κB p65, but by a MOI-dependent differential activation of MAPK pathways. Thus, the major virulence factors of H. pylori CagA, VacA, and DupA might play a minor role in the level of IL-8 gene response to a high bacterial load.

Impaired surface membrane insertion of homo- and heterodimeric human muscle chloride channels carrying amino-terminal myotonia-causing mutations.

Mutations in the muscle chloride channel gene (CLCN1) cause myotonia congenita, an inherited condition characterized by muscle stiffness upon sudden forceful movement. We here studied the functional consequences of four disease-causing mutations that predict amino acid substitutions Q43R, S70L, Y137D and Q160H. Wild-type (WT) and mutant hClC-1 channels were heterologously expressed as YFP or CFP fusion protein in HEK293T cells and analyzed by whole-cell patch clamp and fluorescence recordings on individual cells. Q43R, Y137D and Q160H, but not S70L reduced macroscopic current amplitudes, but left channel gating and unitary current amplitudes unaffected. We developed a novel assay combining electrophysiological and fluorescence measurements at the single-cell level in order to measure the probability of ion channel surface membrane insertion. With the exception of S70L, all tested mutations significantly reduced the relative number of homodimeric hClC-1 channels in the surface membrane. The strongest effect was seen for Q43R that reduced the surface insertion probability by more than 99% in Q43R homodimeric channels and by 92 ± 3% in heterodimeric WT/Q43R channels compared to homodimeric WT channels. The new method offers a sensitive approach to investigate mutations that were reported to cause channelopathies, but display only minor changes in ion channel function.