Evidence for a common mechanism supporting invigoration of action selection and action execution.

The speed, or vigor, of our movements can vary depending on circumstances. For instance, the promise of a reward leads to faster movements. Reward also leads us to move with a lower reaction time, suggesting that the process of action selection can also be invigorated by reward. It has been proposed that invigoration of action selection and of action execution might occur through a common mechanism, and thus these aspects of behavior might be coupled. To test this hypothesis, we asked participants to make reaching movements to "shoot" through a target at varying speeds to assess whether moving more quickly was also associated with more rapid action selection. We found that, when participants were required to move with a lower velocity, the speed of their action selection was also significantly slowed. This finding was recapitulated in a further dataset in which participants determined their own movement speed, but had to move slowly to stop their movement inside the target. By reanalyzing a previous dataset, we also found evidence for the converse relationship between action execution and action selection; when pressured to select actions more rapidly, people also executed movements with higher velocity. Our results establish that invigoration of action selection and action execution vary in tandem with one another, supporting the hypothesis of a common underlying mechanism.NEW & NOTEWORTHY We show that voluntary increases in the vigor of action execution lead action selection to also occur more rapidly. Conversely, hastening action selection by imposing a deadline to act also leads to increases in movement speed. These findings provide evidence that these two distinct aspects of behavior are modulated by a common underlying mechanism.

De novo motor learning of a bimanual control task over multiple days of practice.

Although much research on motor learning has focused on how we adapt our movements to maintain performance in the face of imposed perturbations, in many cases, we must learn new skills from scratch or de novo. Compared with adaptation, relatively little is known about de novo learning. In part, this is because learning a new skill can involve many challenges, including learning to recognize new patterns of sensory input and generate new patterns of motor output. However, even with familiar sensory cues and well-practiced movements, the problem of quickly selecting the appropriate actions in response to the current state is challenging. Here, we devised a bimanual hand-to-cursor mapping that isolates this control problem. We find that participants initially struggled to control the cursor under this bimanual mapping, despite explicit knowledge of the mapping. Performance improved steadily over multiple days of practice, however. Participants exhibited no aftereffects when reverting to a veridical cursor, confirming that participants learned the new task de novo, rather than through adaptation. Corrective responses to mid-movement perturbations of the target were initially weak, but with practice, participants gradually became able to respond rapidly and robustly to perturbations. After 4 days of practice, participants' behavior under the bimanual mapping almost matched performance using a veridically mapped cursor. However, there remained a small but persistent difference in performance level. Our findings illustrate the dynamics and limitations of learning a novel controller and introduce a promising paradigm for tractably investigating this aspect of motor skill learning.NEW & NOTEWORTHY We examine motor learning in a novel task in which participants must use both hands to control an on-screen cursor via a nonintuitive interface. Participants gradually improved their ability to control the cursor over multiple practice sessions, but their control was worse than baseline even after 4 days. These results reveal the timescale and limitations of de novo learning-an important but understudied form of learning.

Aberrant Cerebello-Cortical Connectivity in Pianists With Focal Task-Specific Dystonia.

Musician's dystonia is a type of focal task-specific dystonia (FTSD) characterized by abnormal muscle hypercontraction and loss of fine motor control specifically during instrument playing. Although the neuropathophysiology of musician's dystonia remains unclear, it has been suggested that maladaptive functional abnormalities in subcortical and cortical regions may be involved. Here, we hypothesized that aberrant effective connectivity between the cerebellum (subcortical) and motor/somatosensory cortex may underlie the neuropathophysiology of musician's dystonia. Using functional magnetic resonance imaging, we measured the brain activity of 30 pianists with or without FTSD as they played a magnetic resonance imaging-compatible piano-like keyboard, which elicited dystonic symptoms in many but not all pianists with FTSD. Pianists with FTSD showed greater activation of the right cerebellum during the task than healthy pianists. Furthermore, patients who reported dystonic symptoms during the task demonstrated greater cerebellar activation than those who did not, establishing a link between cerebellar activity and overt dystonic symptoms. Using multivoxel pattern analysis, moreover, we found that dystonic and healthy pianists differed in the task-related effective connectivity between the right cerebellum and left premotor/somatosensory cortex. The present study indicates that abnormal cerebellar activity and cerebello-cortical connectivity may underlie the pathophysiology of FTSD in musicians.

Distinct roles of brain activity and somatotopic representation in pathophysiology of focal dystonia.

Two main neural mechanisms including loss of cortical inhibition and maladaptive plasticity have been thought to be involved in the pathophysiology of focal task-specific dystonia. Such loss of inhibition and maladaptive plasticity likely correspond to cortical overactivity and disorganized somatotopy, respectively. However, the most plausible mechanism of focal task-specific dystonia remains unclear. To address this question, we assessed brain activity and somatotopic representations of motor-related brain areas using functional MRI and behavioral measurement in healthy instrumentalists and patients with embouchure dystonia as an example of focal task-specific dystonia. Dystonic symptoms were measured as variability of fundamental frequency during long tone playing. We found no significant differences in brain activity between the embouchure dystonia and healthy wind instrumentalists in the motor-related areas. Assessment of somatotopy, however, revealed significant differences in the somatotopic representations of the mouth area for the right somatosensory cortex between the two groups. Multiple-regression analysis revealed brain activity in the primary motor and somatosensory cortices, cerebellum, and putamen was significantly associated with variability of fundamental frequency signals representing dystonic symptoms. Conversely, somatotopic representations in motor-related brain areas were not associated with variability of fundamental frequency signals in embouchure dystonia. The present findings suggest that abnormal motor-related network activity and aberrant somatotopy correlate with different aspects of mechanisms underlying focal task-specific dystonia.

Resting-state basal ganglia network codes a motor musical skill and its disruption From dystonia.

BACKGROUND: Musician's dystonia critically impacts professional musicians' careers as they may lose musical skills, which have been acquired through long and intensive training. Yet the pathophysiology of musician's dystonia and its link to the neural mechanisms supporting musical skills is poorly understood. We tested if resting-state functional connectivity might reflect an aspect of musical skill linked to the pathophysiology of musician's dystonia. We also tested a second hypothesis that the region with altered resting-state functional connectivity might be correlated with a quantitative measure of musical skills. METHODS: We studied 21 patients with musician's dystonia affecting their hands and 34 healthy musicians, using resting-state functional magnetic resonance imaging and behavioral assessment. We tested between-group differences of resting-state functional connectivity throughout the whole brain using independent component analysis. RESULTS: We found abnormal basal ganglia resting-state functional connectivity in the putamina of patients with musician's dystonia compared with those of healthy musicians (P = 0.035 corrected for multiple comparisons). We also found that the temporal precision of keystrokes was correlated with basal ganglia functional connectivity in the putamina of healthy pianists (r = 0.72, P = 0.0005), but not in pianists with musician's dystonia (r = -0.11, P = 0.64). CONCLUSIONS: We show that abnormalities of the putamen exist even at rest in musician's dystonia, whereas putaminal abnormality has previously been reported during a task. Moreover, basal ganglia resting-state functional connectivity in the putamen represented training levels in healthy musicians, and its disruption was associated with musician's dystonia. This novel finding hints at the pathophysiological mechanisms by which musician's dystonia follows extensive musical training. © 2018 The Authors. Movement Disorders published by Wiley Periodicals, Inc. on behalf of International Parkinson and Movement Disorder Society.

A pilot study of sensory feedback by transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation to improve manipulation deficit caused by severe sensory loss after stroke.

BACKGROUND: Sensory disturbance is common following stroke and can exacerbate functional deficits, even in patients with relatively good motor function. In particular, loss of appropriate sensory feedback in severe sensory loss impairs manipulation capability. We hypothesized that task-oriented training with sensory feedback assistance would improve manipulation capability even without sensory pathway recovery. METHODS: We developed a system that provides sensory feedback by transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation (SENS) for patients with sensory loss, and investigated the feasibility of the system in a stroke patient with severe sensory impairment and mild motor deficit. The electrical current was modulated by the force exerted by the fingertips so as to allow the patient to identify the intensity. The patient had severe sensory loss due to a right thalamic hemorrhage suffered 27 months prior to participation in the study. The patient first practiced a cylindrical grasp task with SENS for 1 hour daily over 29 days. Pressure information from the affected thumb was fed back to the unaffected shoulder. The same patient practiced a tip pinch task with SENS for 1 hour daily over 4 days. Pressure information from the affected thumb and index finger was fed back to the unaffected and affected shoulders, respectively. We assessed the feasibility of SENS and examined the improvement of manipulation capability after training with SENS. RESULTS: The fluctuation in fingertip force during the cylindrical grasp task gradually decreased as the training progressed. The patient was able to maintain a stable grip force after training, even without SENS. Pressure exerted by the tip pinch of the affected hand was unstable before intervention with SENS compared with that of the unaffected hand. However, they were similar to each other immediately after SENS was initiated, suggesting that the somatosensory information improved tip pinch performance. The patient's manipulation capability assessed by the Box and Block Test score improved through SENS intervention and was partly maintained after SENS was removed, until at least 7 months after the intervention. The sensory test score, however, showed no recovery after intervention. CONCLUSIONS: We conclude that the proposed system would be useful in the rehabilitation of patients with sensory loss.

Neuroanatomical Basis of Individuality in Muscle Tuning Function: Neural Correlates of Muscle Tuning.

In a conventional view of motor control, the human brain might employ an optimization principle that leads a stereotypical motor behavior which we observe as an averaged behavioral data over subjects. In this scenario, the inter-individual motor variability is considered as an observation noise. Here, we challenged this view. We considered a motor control task where the human participants manipulated arm force by coordinating shoulder and elbow torques and investigated the muscle-tuning function that represents how the brain distributed the ideal joint torques to multiple muscles. In the experimental data, we observed large inter-individual variability in the profile of a muscle-tuning function. This contradicts with a well-established optimization theory that is based on minimization of muscle energy consumption and minimization of motor variability. We then hypothesized the inter-subject differences in the structure of the motor cortical areas might be the source of the across-subjects variability of the motor behavior. This was supported by a voxel-based morphometry analysis of magnetic resonance imaging; The inter-individual variability of the muscle tuning profile was correlated with that of the gray matter volume in the premotor cortex which is ipsilateral to the used arm (i.e., right hemisphere for the right arm). This study suggests that motor individuality may originate from inter-individual variation in the cortical structure.

New portable voice guidance device for the manual wheelchair transfer: a pilot study in patients with hemiplegia.

PURPOSE: Older and/or cognitively impaired patients require verbal guidance to prevent accidents during wheelchair operation, thus increasing the burden on caregivers. This study aimed to develop a new portable voice guidance device for manual wheelchairs and examine its clinical usefulness. METHOD: We developed a portable voice guidance device to monitor the statuses of wheelchair brakes and footrests and automatically provide voice guidance for operation. The device comprises a microcomputer, four magnets and magnetic sensors, speaker and battery. Device operation was assessed during the transfer from a wheelchair to bed six times per day over three days for a total of 90 transfers in five stroke patients (mean age: 79.6 years) who required verbal guidance to direct wheelchair operation. Device usability was also assessed using a questionnaire. RESULTS: The device performed perfectly during all attempted transfers (100%). To ensure safety, the assessor needed to add verbal guidance during 33 of 90 attempted transfers (36.6%). Overall, the device usability was favourable. However, some assessors were unsatisfied with the volume of the device voice, guidance timing and burden reduction. CONCLUSIONS: Our device could facilitate wheelchair operation and might potentially be used to reduce fall risk in stroke patients and the burden on caregivers. Implications for Rehabilitation The acquisition of transfer independence is an important step in the rehabilitation of patients with mobility issues. Many patients require supervision and guidance regarding the operation of brakes and footrests on manual wheelchairs. This newly developed voice guidance device for manual wheelchair transfers worked well in patients with hemiplegia and might be helpful to reduce the fall risks and the burden of care.

Decoding of Ankle Flexion and Extension from Cortical Current Sources Estimated from Non-invasive Brain Activity Recording Methods.

The classification of ankle movements from non-invasive brain recordings can be applied to a brain-computer interface (BCI) to control exoskeletons, prosthesis, and functional electrical stimulators for the benefit of patients with walking impairments. In this research, ankle flexion and extension tasks at two force levels in both legs, were classified from cortical current sources estimated by a hierarchical variational Bayesian method, using electroencephalography (EEG) and functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) recordings. The hierarchical prior for the current source estimation from EEG was obtained from activated brain areas and their intensities from an fMRI group (second-level) analysis. The fMRI group analysis was performed on regions of interest defined over the primary motor cortex, the supplementary motor area, and the somatosensory area, which are well-known to contribute to movement control. A sparse logistic regression method was applied for a nine-class classification (eight active tasks and a resting control task) obtaining a mean accuracy of 65.64% for time series of current sources, estimated from the EEG and the fMRI signals using a variational Bayesian method, and a mean accuracy of 22.19% for the classification of the pre-processed of EEG sensor signals, with a chance level of 11.11%. The higher classification accuracy of current sources, when compared to EEG classification accuracy, was attributed to the high number of sources and the different signal patterns obtained in the same vertex for different motor tasks. Since the inverse filter estimation for current sources can be done offline with the present method, the present method is applicable to real-time BCIs. Finally, due to the highly enhanced spatial distribution of current sources over the brain cortex, this method has the potential to identify activation patterns to design BCIs for the control of an affected limb in patients with stroke, or BCIs from motor imagery in patients with spinal cord injury.

Designing and testing lightweight shoulder prostheses with hybrid actuators for movements involved in typical activities of daily living and impact absorption.

Unlike forearm amputees, transhumeral amputees have residual stumps that are too small to provide a sufficient range of operation for their prosthetic parts to perform usual activities of daily living. Furthermore, it is difficult for small residual stumps to provide sufficient impact absorption for safe manipulation in daily living, as intact arms do. Therefore, substitution of upper limb function in transhumeral amputees requires a sufficient range of motion and sufficient viscoelasticity for shoulder prostheses under critical weight and dimension constraints. We propose the use of two different types of actuators, ie, pneumatic elastic actuators (PEAs) and servo motors. PEAs offer high power-to-weight performance and have intrinsic viscoelasticity in comparison with motors or standard industrial pneumatic cylinder actuators. However, the usefulness of PEAs in large working spaces is limited because of their short strokes. Servo motors, in contrast, can be used to achieve large ranges of motion. In this study, the relationship between the force and stroke of PEAs was investigated. The impact absorption of both types of actuators was measured using a single degree-of-freedom prototype to evaluate actuator compliance for safety purposes. Based on the fundamental properties of the actuators identified, a four degree-of-freedom robotic arm is proposed for prosthetic use. The configuration of the actuators and functional parts was designed to achieve a specified range of motion and torque calculated from the results of a simulation of typical movements performed in usual activities of daily living. Our experimental results showed that the requirements for the shoulder prostheses could be satisfied.

Development of a small sucker manipulator for underwater surgery support.

WaFLES (Water-Filled LaparoEndoscopic Surgery) is an operative method suggested by Igarashi et al., which has several advantages, such as, preventing the drying of inner organs, and being able to use ultrasound devices for real time monitoring. However, grasping of inner organs with usual forceps for move and incision purpose is difficult. Therefore our ultimate goal is to develop a small sucker manipulator for WaFLES support. Experiments were conducted to explore suitable suction cups for underwater application, and suitable structure (cup-to-cup distance, elasticity of binding material, layouts of multiple cups) for a multiple-cup assembly, in terms of adsorption force and tolerance to sideslip. Experiment results showed that 1) the shape of each single suction cup for the underwater application was identified; 2) the structure of the multiple-cup assembly affects the adsorption force and tolerance to sideslip.

Designing and testing a hybrid lightweight shoulder prosthesis.

Lightweight prostheses are preferred in terms of usability in daily living. However, this is not a property easy to realize, especially for shoulder prostheses. High portability, multiple degrees of freedom (DOFs) with an appropriate ROM (range of motion), sufficient end-effector power, and suitable viscoelasticity for the safe use in daily living, usually result in a heavy weight. In this paper, a hybrid shoulder prosthesis that combined servo motors and pneumatic elastic actuators, with a weight distribution scheme, was designed to meet the requirements. The prosthetic system was preliminarily tested by comparing its ADL (activities of daily living) motion data with that of an intact arm. The experiment results showed that the shoulder prosthesis could reproduce the motion of an intact arm, thus demonstrate its usability in daily living.

Ultrasound imaging and semi-automatic analysis of active muscle features in electrical stimulation by optical flow.

Ultrasound imaging is an effective way to measure the muscle activity in electrical stimulation studies. However, it is a time consuming task to manually measure pennation angle and muscle thickness, which are the benchmark features to analyze muscle activity from the ultrasound imaging. In previous studies, the muscle features were measured by calculating optical flow of the pennation angle by using only fibers of a muscle from the ultrasound, without carefully considering moving muscle edges during active and passive contraction. Therefore, this study aimed to measure the pennation angle and muscle thickness by using the edges and fibers of a muscle in a quantitative way in a semi-automatic optical flow based approach. The results of the semi-automatic analysis were compared to that of manual measurement. Through the comparison, it is clear that the proposed algorithm could achieve higher accuracy in tracking the thickness and pennation angle for a sequence of ultrasound images.

A sensory feedback system utilizing cutaneous electrical stimulation for stroke patients with sensory loss.

Sensory disturbance is very common following stroke and may exacerbate a patient's functional impairment, even if the patient has good motor function. For instance, patients with sensory disturbances will often grip an object with excessive or underestimated pinch pressure, because they do not receive the appropriate sensory feedback and must rely only on visual feedback. In this study, we developed a sensory feedback system that used cutaneous electrical stimulation for patients with sensory loss. In the system, electrical stimulation is modulated by the strength of pinch pressure and the patients are able to identify their fingertip pinch pressure. To evaluate the efficacy of the system, a clinical case study was conducted in a stroke patient with severe sensory loss. The fluctuation in force control during grasping was gradually decreased as the training progressed and the patient was able to maintain a stable pinch pressure during grasping even without the system following 2 months of intervention. We conclude that the system described in this study may be a useful contribution towards the rehabilitation of patients with sensory loss.

Single session of transcranial direct current stimulation transiently increases knee extensor force in patients with hemiparetic stroke.

BACKGROUND: Transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) of the motor cortex can enhance the performance of a paretic upper extremity after stroke. Reported effects on lower limb (LL) function are sparse. OBJECTIVE: The authors examined whether tDCS can increase the force production of the paretic quadriceps. METHODS: In this double-blind, crossover, sham-controlled experimental design, 8 participants with chronic subcortical stroke performed knee extension using their hemiparetic leg before, during, and after anodal or sham tDCS of the LL motor cortex representation in the affected hemisphere. Affected hand-grip force was also recorded. RESULTS: The maximal knee-extension force increased by 21 N (13.2%, P < .01) during anodal tDCS compared with baseline and sham stimulation. The increase persisted less than 30 minutes. Maximal hand-grip force did not change. CONCLUSIONS: Anodal tDCS transiently enhanced knee extensor strength. The modest increase was specific to the LL. Thus, tDCS might augment the rehabilitation of stroke patients when combined with lower extremity strengthening or functional training.

Evaluation method for the proficiency level of an operating myoelectric hand using EMG signals.

To evaluate the proficiency level of an operating myoelectric hand, we proposed an evaluation index consisting of the accuracy and the reproducibility of electromyography (EMG) signal patterns. Our proposed method is not an absolute evaluation because we use bio-signals, so it is necessary to verify the correlation between the proposed index and performance evaluation to confirm the usefulness of the index. Therefore, we conducted classification tests on eight forearm motions and verified the correlation between the proposed method and the classification rate. There was a strong correlation between the accuracy and the classification rate. In addition, if the accuracy was high, high reproducibility led to an increase in the classification rate. We conclude that the proposed method can evaluate the proficiency level of a myoelectric hand.

Self-organized clustering approach for motion discrimination using EMG signal.

In order to control a myoelectric hand, it is necessary to discriminate among motions using electromyography (EMG) signals. One of the biggest problems in doing so is that EMG feature patterns of different motions overlap, and a classifier cannot discriminate clearly between them. Therefore, we propose a motion discrimination method to solve this problem. In this method, representative feature patterns are extracted from the EMG signals by using a self-organized clustering method, and user's intended motions are assigned as class labels to these feature patterns on the basis of the joint angles of the hand and fingers. The classifier learns using training data that consists of feature patterns and class labels, and then discriminates motions. In an experiment, we compared the discrimination rates of the proposed and conventional methods. The results indicate that the discrimination rate obtained with the former is 5-30% higher than that obtained with the latter; this result verifies the effectiveness of our method.

Control strategy for a myoelectric hand: measuring acceptable time delay in human intention discrimination.

In order to enhance controllability of a myoelectric hand, we focus on a gap between the time when a human intends to move a myoelectric hand and the time when the hand actually moves (i.e., time delay). Normally, the myoelectric hand users dislike the time delay because it makes them feel uncomfortable. However, the users learn the time delay within some time ranges and, eventually, get feel comfortable to operate the hand. Thus, we assume, if we reveal the acceptable delay time (i.e., the time the users accept the gap with their learning ability), we can provide more time in a human intention discrimination process, and enhance its success rate. Therefore, we developed a mobile myoelectric hand system with an embedded linux computer, and conducted a ball catch experiment: we investigate the acceptable delay time by adding the delay time (i.e., 120[ms], 170[ms], 220[ms], 270[ms], 320[ms]) into the human intention discrimination process. As a result, we confirmed that the max accept delay time was approximately 170 [ms] that achieves 61% success rate.

Motion classification using epidural electrodes for low-invasive brain-machine interface.

Brain-machine interfaces (BMIs) are expected to be used to assist seriously disabled persons' communications and reintegrate their motor functions. One of the difficult problems to realize practical BMI is how to record neural activity clearly and safely. Conventional invasive methods require electrodes inside the dura mater, and noninvasive methods do not involve surgery but have poor signal quality. Thus a low-invasive method of recording is important for safe and practical BMI. In this study, the authors used epidural electrodes placed between the skull and dura mater to record a rat's neural activity for low-invasive BMI. The signals were analyzed using a short-time Fourier transform, and the power spectra were classified into rat motions by a support vector machine. Classification accuracies were up to 96% in two-class discrimination, including that when the rat stopped, walked, and rested. The feasibility of a low-invasive BMI based on an epidural neural recording was shown in this study.