A Lonelier World after COVID-19: Longitudinal Population-Based Study of Well-Being, Emotional and Social Loneliness, and Suicidal Behaviour in Slovenia.

Background and Objectives: The impact of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) goes beyond the consequences of the infectious disease, especially as the measures taken to prevent the spread of the virus have had a very profound impact on people's social relationships and everyday lives. Several studies have investigated these effects, but there is a lack of longitudinal studies in Central Europe. Objective: The aim of our study was to observe changes in well-being, loneliness, and suicidal behaviour before, during, and after the COVID-19 pandemic using the same population-based cohort. Materials and Methods: A representative sample of 440 participants completed online questionnaires at four time points: 2019 (wave 0), 2021 (wave 1), 2022 (wave 2), and 2023 (wave 3). Results: The results show significant changes in the levels of well-being and loneliness over these periods. In particular, both social and emotional loneliness increased during the pandemic, while emotional loneliness increased to a greater extent without further decreases. Well-being appeared to increase after pandemic-related restrictions diminished but decreased again one year later. No significant changes concerning suicidal ideation were observed. Conclusions: Our study suggests that the COVID-19 pandemic changed the way in which people perceive their well-being and especially their relationships with others. From the data, we can conclude that people's worldview is now lonelier than before the pandemic.

Beyond the Preventive Measures: A Delphi Method-Based Study of the Impact of the COVID-19 Pandemic on the Mental Health of Different Age Groups.

Background and Objectives: The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) preventive measures affected various aspects of people's lives, while also representing an important risk factor for people's mental health. In the present study, we examined the negative psychological consequences of the preventive measures on people's mental health and the protective factors that strengthened their mental health and well-being during the pandemic. Materials and Methods: A study, using a combination of qualitative and quantitative methods based on a Delphi protocol, was conducted with a sample of Slovenian professionals who worked with people from different demographic groups (i.e., children and adolescents, emerging adults, the adult working population, the elderly) during the pandemic. We conducted (i) a qualitative study involving semi-structured interviews with 11 professionals and (ii) a quantitative study where 73 professionals completed a structured online questionnaire. Results: Experts recognized the disruption of informal face-to-face social contacts as the measure with the greatest impact on people's lives across all groups studied, the effect being particularly evident in relation to individuals' development period and socio-demographic characteristics. An individual's ability to adapt to change and emotional support provided by family or other close persons contributed significantly to maintaining mental health and well-being during the pandemic. Conclusions: Considering the interplay of various COVID-19-related risk and protective factors for mental health, enabling and promoting the maintenance and development of social relationships (including through alternative pathways) should be a priority aspect of (mental health) intervention for all demographic groups.

Social Support and Help-Seeking Among Suicide Bereaved: A Study With Italian Survivors.

BACKGROUND: Research over how suicide survivors approach services is limited. Aims: This cross-sectional study explores the psychological state and perceived social support of Italian survivors, including those who have not sought for help, and investigates differences for gender or kinship with the departed. Methods: Rule-based system (RBS) analyses identified relationships between social support and reported formal/informal help-seeking behavior. One-hundred thirty-two (103F; 27M) suicide survivors (53 having never sought for support) answered an anonymous online survey. Life satisfaction, wellbeing, perceived social support, suicidal ideation and formal/informal help-seeking were investigated. Results: RBS analysis identified different help-seeking behaviors: survivors lacking social support may avoid reaching a psychologist and prefer GPs, look for advice in online forums and rely on people out of their narrower network such as co-workers. Conclusion: These unique study's results offer insight to identify which specific areas would be fruitful to investigate while assessing social support in bereaved individuals.

Emotional and Social Loneliness as Predictors of Suicidal Ideation in Different Age Groups.

Loneliness and suicidal ideation (SI) are relevant issues. This study aimed to examine the prevalence of death ideation (DI) and SI in the general population across four age groups and to determine the extent to which emotional and social loneliness are associated with SI. Data were collected via an online panel in Slovenia in February 2019 on a representative sample of 991 participants (50.5% men) aged 18 years and over. Participants completed a series of questionnaires on loneliness, suicidality, stress, and well-being. DI, SI, and previous suicide attempts were most common among younger participants. In each age group, several factors appeared as important predictors of SI, with emotional loneliness being a significant factor in all groups. Given the role of emotional loneliness in SI, prevention programs should address loneliness and its correlates across age groups.

Suicide in late life: A viewpoint.

Suicide in old age represents a sad public health concern. Despite the global decline in rates of suicide and the general amelioration of quality of life and access to health care for older adults, their rates of suicide remain the highest virtually in every part of the world. With the aging of the world population and the growing number of mononuclear families, the risk of an increase in isolation, loneliness and dependency does not appear ungrounded. The Covid-19 pandemic is claiming the life of many older persons and creating unprecedented conditions of distress, particularly for this segment of the population. This article briefly examines the main characteristics of suicidal behavior in late life, including observations deriving from the spread of the Sars-2 coronavirus and possible strategies for prevention.

A systematic review of older adults' request for or attitude toward euthanasia or assisted-suicide.

OBJECTIVES: Prevalence rates of death by euthanasia (EUT) and physician-assisted suicide (PAS) have increased among older adults, and public debates on these practices are still taking place. In this context, it seemed important to conduct a systematic review of the predictors (demographic, physical health, psychological, social, quality of life, religious, or existential) associated with attitudes toward, wishes and requests for, as well as death by EUT/PAS among individuals aged 60 years and over. METHOD: The search for quantitative studies in PsycINFO and MEDLINE databases was conducted three times from February 2016 until April 2018. Articles of probable relevance (n = 327) were assessed for eligibility. Studies that only presented descriptive data (n = 306) were excluded. RESULTS: This review identified 21 studies with predictive analyses, but in only 4 did older adults face actual end-of-life decisions. Most studies (17) investigated attitudes toward EUT/PAS (9 through hypothetical scenarios). Younger age, lower religiosity, higher education, and higher socio-economic status were the most consistent predictors of endorsement of EUT/PAS. Findings were heterogeneous with regard to physical health, psychological, and social factors. Findings were difficult to compare across studies because of the variety of sample characteristics and outcomes measures. CONCLUSION: Future studies should adopt common and explicit definitions of EUT/PAS, as well as research designs (e.g. mixed longitudinal) that allow for better consideration of personal, social, and cultural factors, and their interplay, on EUT/PAS decisions.

Exploring the Support Needs of People Bereaved by Suicide: A Qualitative Study.

Bereavement by suicide is a unique form of grief characterized by features such as stigma, shame, and rejection that may complicate the grieving process and place people at heightened risk for specific mental health disorders, suicide attempts, and dying by suicide. To better understand the unique support needs of the suicide-bereaved and how these can be met, this Australian study qualitatively explored the experiences of people bereaved by suicide. Fifteen individuals who had lost a spouse or partner or a family member to suicide formed three focus groups across different locations in Queensland, Australia. Analysis identified four dominant themes: changing support needs, difficulties navigating services, experiences of stigma and social isolation, and connecting with others. The results from this study provide a powerful insight into the experiences and specific needs of the suicide-bereaved and could inform further development of suicide bereavement support services.

Suicide and sudden death bereavement in Australia: A longitudinal study of family members over 2 years after death.

OBJECTIVE: Grief reactions change over time. However, only a limited number of studies, and none in Australia, have analysed changes in individual grief reactions longitudinally. The aim is to examine changes in grief reactions, mental health and suicidality of close family members bereaved by suicide, 6, 12 and 24 months after their loss compared with those bereaved by other forms of sudden death, adjusting for confounding factors. METHOD: Participants were 142 adult family members bereaved by suicide and 63 by other sudden death, followed up at 6, 12 and 24 months in Queensland, Australia. The Grief Experience Questionnaire, Depression Anxiety Stress Scale and Beck Scale for Suicide Ideation were used as main outcomes. Mixed-effects linear and logistic regressions were utilized for statistical analyses. RESULTS: There were significant differences in rejection, stigmatization, shame and responsibility between the suicide and sudden death bereaved over the 2-year period, after adjusting for potential confounding factors. Rejection, stigmatization, search for explanation, somatic reactions and symptoms of depression and anxiety (Depression Anxiety Stress Scale) declined significantly over time in both groups. Rejection and somatic reactions showed group-by-time interaction effects, with a decrease in the suicide bereaved and no change in the sudden death bereaved. Loss of social support and suicidal ideation did not show a group or time effect. CONCLUSION: Although our findings confirm that there are several common dimensions to experiencing a sudden death of a family member, several differences were found between the suicide and non-suicide sudden death bereaved including significantly higher levels of rejection, stigmatization, shame and responsibility remaining in the suicide compared to sudden death bereaved 2 years after their loss. These findings should be considered in clinical practice and when designing postvention services in Australia.

Late life suicide in Italy, 1980-2015.

AIM: Suicide trends in older adults were examined in Italy from 1980 to 2015. Age groups considered were 65-74 years, 75-84 and 85 + years. METHODS: Data on suicide deaths were obtained from the Italian Mortality Database (IMDB) collected by the Italian National Institute of Statistics (ISTAT) and processed by the Statistics Unit of the Italian National Institute of Health (Istituto Superiore di Sanità). Joinpoint regression analyses were carried out for age subgroups by sex. In addition, data related to four main macro-areas of Italy were considered: North-West, North-East, Centre, and South with Islands (Sicily and Sardinia). RESULTS: Starting by 1985, declines were noted in all age groups with more noticeable decreases in older adults aged 75-84 and 85 + years. Female subjects demonstrated more ample falls in rates than male individuals. Declines were detected in all macro-areas of Italy. CONCLUSION: Improved health assistance and quality of life of older individuals have probably contributed to the decline of suicide rates of senior citizens, who also showed improved poverty indices in the country, differently from all other age groups.

The model of dynamic balance in therapists' experiences and views on working with suicidal clients: A qualitative study.

Working with suicidal clients is frequently referred to as one of the most demanding and anxiety-provoking aspects of therapeutic work. The aim of this study was to obtain an in-depth understanding of therapists' experience in treating suicidal individuals and to develop a theoretical model of it. Eleven psychotherapists (four men and seven women) participated in individual semistructured interviews. The interviews were audiotaped, transcribed and analysed by the principles of grounded theory. We developed a model of dynamic balance in therapists' experiences and views on working with suicidal clients. The model includes six core themes, which represent aspects of therapists' experience and views where a dynamic balance is needed between two different poles. The core themes are as follows: (i) understanding of suicidality: the general versus specific; (ii) the role of alliance: protective factor versus no guarantees; (iii) attitudes: acceptant versus life-oriented; (iv) emotional response: worry versus trust; (v) responsibility: therapist's professionality versus client's autonomy; and (vi) focus: suicidality versus individual as a person. The model takes into account other variables that are relevant to the process and outcomes of the therapy: factors, related to the therapist and the client, as well as system regulations and therapeutic setting. The presented model may be helpful for mental health professionals in reflecting on their experiences of working with suicidal clients, describing the relevant topics and the way they relate to each other.

Profiles by suicide methods: an analysis of older adults.

OBJECTIVE: The aim of this study was to investigate choice of suicide method in individuals aged 65 years and over. METHODS: Data were obtained from the Queensland Suicide Register, Australia. Univariate and multi-variate logistic regression analyses were conducted. RESULTS: The predominant methods in older adults were hanging (21.5%), firearms and explosives (20.9%), drug poisoning (18.5%), followed by other poisoning (mainly MVCO) (12.6%), suffocation by plastic bag (8.5%), and drowning (6%). Some methods (e.g. firearms and explosives, drug poisoning, suffocation) appeared characterised by profiles (e.g., socio-demographic and clinical aspects), meanwhile others were not well distinguishable. Compared to other methods, those who died by firearms and explosives were significantly more likely to be males, Australian born, live in rural and remote areas, and less likely to have a mental illness, previous suicide attempt(s) or leave a suicide note. Those who died by drug poisoning were more likely to be females, leave a suicide note, experience interpersonal conflict and live in urban areas. Similarly, those who chose suffocation by plastic bag were more likely to be older females, leave a suicide note, and pay attention to suicide in the media, but less likely to experience interpersonal conflict. CONCLUSION: Acceptability, availability and lethality are important factors impacting choice of means and should be considered when designing suicide prevention activities in older adults.

Forgiveness and Blame Among Suicide Survivors: A Qualitative Analysis on Reports of 4-Year Self-Help-Group Meetings.

This article presents the qualitative analysis of reports obtained through participant observations collected over a 4-year period in a series of suicide survivor self-help group meetings. It analysed how grievers' healing was managed by their own support. The longitudinal study was focused on self/other blame and forgiveness. Results show how self-blame was continuously present along all the period and how it increased when new participants entered the group. This finding indicates that self-blame characterizes especially the beginning of the participation, and that any new entrance rekindles the problem. However, no participant had ever definitively demonstrated self-forgiveness, while a general forgiveness appeared when self-blame stopped. It is also suggested how to facilitate the elaboration of self-blame and forgiveness.

Factors associated with suicide: Case-control study in South Tyrol.

BACKGROUND: As suicide is related to many factors in addition to psychiatric illness, broad and comprehensive risk-assessment for risk of suicide is required. This study aimed to differentiate nondiagnostic risk factors among suicides versus comparable psychiatric patients without suicidal behavior. METHODS: We carried out a pilot, case-control comparison of 131 cases of suicide in South Tyrol matched for age and sex with 131 psychiatric controls, using psychological autopsy methods to evaluate differences in clinically assessed demographic, social, and clinical factors, using bivariate conditional Odds Risk comparisons followed by conditional regression modeling controlled for ethnicity. RESULTS: Based on multivariable conditional regression modeling, suicides were significantly more likely to have experienced risk factors, ranking as: [a] family history of suicide or attempt≥[b] recent interpersonal stressors≥[c] childhood traumatic events≥[d] lack of recent clinician contacts≥[e] previous suicide attempt≥[f] non-Italian ethnicity, but did not differ in education, marital status, living situation, or employment, nor by psychiatric or substance-abuse diagnoses. CONCLUSIONS: Both recent and early factors were associated with suicide, including lack of recent clinical care, non-Italian cultural subgroup-membership, familial suicidal behavior, and recent interpersonal distress.

Social factors and Australian farmer suicide: a qualitative study.

BACKGROUND: Farmers and farm workers have been recognised as a group at high risk of suicide in Australia; however this risk is not without geographic and demographic variation. This study aims to identify and better understand the complex interplay of risk and protective factors surrounding farmer suicide, with an emphasis on social influences, so as to inform tailored and effective suicide prevention initiatives. METHODS: Focus groups were conducted in three diverse sites across two states in Australia with men and women separately to gain perceptions about suicide risk and protective factors and attitudes towards suicide and help seeking. The three communities in each state represented areas with a suicide rate similar to, above, and below the state average. The communities were also diverse in their population, types of farming, geographic location, distance from and access to services. There were a total of 33 female and 30 male participants. RESULTS: Qualitative analysis indicated three major interrelated social factors: (1) changing rural communities, (2) community attitudes and stigma and (3) relationship issues. CONCLUSIONS: The biopsycho-ecological model is considered useful to better understand and address social, as well as individual and environmental factors, pertaining to farmer suicide.

Global Mortality From Firearms, 1990-2016.

Importance: Understanding global variation in firearm mortality rates could guide prevention policies and interventions. Objective: To estimate mortality due to firearm injury deaths from 1990 to 2016 in 195 countries and territories. Design, Setting, and Participants: This study used deidentified aggregated data including 13 812 location-years of vital registration data to generate estimates of levels and rates of death by age-sex-year-location. The proportion of suicides in which a firearm was the lethal means was combined with an estimate of per capita gun ownership in a revised proxy measure used to evaluate the relationship between availability or access to firearms and firearm injury deaths. Exposures: Firearm ownership and access. Main Outcomes and Measures: Cause-specific deaths by age, sex, location, and year. Results: Worldwide, it was estimated that 251 000 (95% uncertainty interval [UI], 195 000-276 000) people died from firearm injuries in 2016, with 6 countries (Brazil, United States, Mexico, Colombia, Venezuela, and Guatemala) accounting for 50.5% (95% UI, 42.2%-54.8%) of those deaths. In 1990, there were an estimated 209 000 (95% UI, 172 000 to 235 000) deaths from firearm injuries. Globally, the majority of firearm injury deaths in 2016 were homicides (64.0% [95% UI, 54.2%-68.0%]; absolute value, 161 000 deaths [95% UI, 107 000-182 000]); additionally, 27% were firearm suicide deaths (67 500 [95% UI, 55 400-84 100]) and 9% were unintentional firearm deaths (23 000 [95% UI, 18 200-24 800]). From 1990 to 2016, there was no significant decrease in the estimated global age-standardized firearm homicide rate (-0.2% [95% UI, -0.8% to 0.2%]). Firearm suicide rates decreased globally at an annualized rate of 1.6% (95% UI, 1.1-2.0), but in 124 of 195 countries and territories included in this study, these levels were either constant or significant increases were estimated. There was an annualized decrease of 0.9% (95% UI, 0.5%-1.3%) in the global rate of age-standardized firearm deaths from 1990 to 2016. Aggregate firearm injury deaths in 2016 were highest among persons aged 20 to 24 years (for men, an estimated 34 700 deaths [95% UI, 24 900-39 700] and for women, an estimated 3580 deaths [95% UI, 2810-4210]). Estimates of the number of firearms by country were associated with higher rates of firearm suicide (P < .001; R2 = 0.21) and homicide (P < .001; R2 = 0.35). Conclusions and Relevance: This study estimated between 195 000 and 276 000 firearm injury deaths globally in 2016, the majority of which were firearm homicides. Despite an overall decrease in rates of firearm injury death since 1990, there was variation among countries and across demographic subgroups.