Incidence and risk factors of heat-related illness in dogs from New South Wales, Australia (1997-2017).

Heat Related Illness (HRI) in dogs is expected to increase as heatwaves surge due to global warming. The most severe form of HRI, heat stroke, is potentially fatal in dogs. The current study investigated the incidence and risk factors for HRI in dogs in NSW, Australia, from 1997 to 2017. We identified 119 HRI cases during this period, with a fatality rate of 23%. Dog breeds at elevated risk of HRI were Australian Stumpy Tail Cattle Dog, British Bulldog, French Bulldog, Maremma Sheepdog, Italian Greyhound, Chow Chow, Airedale Terrier, Pug, Samoyed, English Springer Spaniel, Labrador Retriever, Golden Retriever, Cavalier King Charles Spaniel, Border Collie, Staffordshire Bull Terrier, and pooled non-Australian National Kennel Council breeds (which included the American and Australian Bulldog) when compared with cross breeds (i.e., the reference variable). As expected, HRI cases were more likely in December and January, during the Australian summer and during hotter years (e.g., 2016). There were no differences in the risk of HRI between males and females nor between desexed or un-desexed dogs; but older dogs were at increased risk of HRI. These findings underscore the need for data collection that will enable the incidence of HRI in dogs to be monitored and to better understand canine risk factors particularly as temperatures will continue to rise due to global warming. The risk of mortality from HRI underpins the need for education programs focussed on prevention and early identification of HRI so that owners present affected dogs to their veterinarian as promptly as possible.

The effects of season and devil facial tumour disease on the reproductive physiology of the male Tasmanian devil (Sarcophilus harrisii).

Devil facial tumour disease (DFTD) is the cause of the rapid decline of wild Tasmanian devils. Female devils are seasonal breeders with births peaking during autumn (i.e. March) but the degree of reproductive seasonality in male devils is unknown. The objective of this study was to examine the potential effects of season and DFTD on reproductive function in male devils (n=55). Testicular (1.90±0.23 g) and epididymal (0.90±0.06 g) weights were maximal during autumn and spring (P<0.05), whereas prostate (3.71±0.74 g) and Cowper's gland (0.68±0.22; 0.52±0.21 g) weights peaked during autumn (P<0.001). The motility of spermatozoa from the cauda epididymides extracted post-mortem was similar (P>0.05) across season and disease state (31.5±13.1% total motility). Testicular and epididymal weights were no different between animals displaying late or early-stage DTFD signs or disease-free animals (P>0.1). The accessory sex glands were larger in late-stage DFTD animals than in animals with early-stage disease signs or which were disease-free (P<0.01) but effects of season on this result can't be excluded. Serum testosterone concentrations peaked during summer (0.25±0.18 ng mL(-1)) but values were not different from the preceding and subsequent seasons (P>0.05), nor influenced by disease stage (P>0.1). Seasonal and DFTD-related changes in serum cortisol concentrations were not evident (P>0.1). Male devil reproduction does not appear to be restricted by season nor inhibited by DFTD.

Development and evaluation of electroejaculation techniques in the Tasmanian devil (Sarcophilus harrisii).

Electroejaculation (EEJ) has been used successfully to collect samples suitable for genome resource banking from a variety of endangered wildlife species. Ejaculates can also be used to evaluate the reproductive potential of individuals and provide information on seminal characteristics to aid in the development of sperm cryopreservation techniques. Electroejaculation techniques used for marsupial and eutherian species were tested on Tasmanian devils (n=35). Spermic ejaculates were collected in 54% (19/35) of EEJ attempts. Spermic ejaculates were low in volume (3.9±6.5×10(2) µL, range 10-3000 µL) and contained low numbers of spermatozoa (3.3±7.8×10(3) spermatozoa per ejaculate, range 6-33000). The osmolality and pH of presumptive urine-free ejaculates were 389±130 mOsm kg(-1) (range 102-566) and 7.0±0.9 (range 6.0-8.0), respectively. Prostatic bodies were observed in 79% (26/33) of ejaculates. Episodic fluctuations in serum testosterone concentrations were not detected during the EEJ procedure (P>0.05). Increases observed in serum cortisol concentrations during EEJ were less (P<0.05) than those observed after an adrenalcorticotropic hormone challenge and diurnal variation suggested that cortisol concentrations are greater during the day than at night (P<0.05). This information can be used to provide range values for the future examination of basic endocrine responses and the adrenal-pituitary axis of this species. This study also demonstrated that spermatozoa-rich devil electroejaculates are more difficult to obtain and poorer in quality than those of other marsupials.

The reproductive cycle of the Tasmanian devil (Sarcophilus harrisii) and factors associated with reproductive success in captivity.

Numbers of wild Tasmanian devils are declining as a result of the fatal, transmissible Devil Facial Tumor Disease. A captive insurance population program has been initiated but current captive breeding rates are sub-optimal and therefore the goal of this project was to increase our understanding of the estrous cycle of the devil and elucidate potential causes of failed male-female pairings. Temporal patterns of fecal progestagen and corticosterone metabolite concentrations were examined for females (n=41) in three categories of reproductive status (successful: viable young, n=20 estrous cycles; unsuccessful: paired with a male but no young confirmed, n=44 estrous cycles; non-mated: no access to a male during estrus, n=8 estrous cycles) but substantial differences were not found. Females were more likely to produce pouch young if pairing with the male extended into late proestrus (P<0.05), thereby decreasing the time between pairing and presumed ovulation. The interval between the end of proestrous elevation in progestagen metabolite concentrations and the beginning of the luteal phase was 7.6±2.3 days in successful females. The length of the luteal phase in successful females was 12.5±1.4 days which was not different from unsuccessful or non-mated females (P>0.05). Unsuccessful females had 1-3 estrous cycles within a single year. Successful females were predominantly wild-caught (17/19, 90%) and most produced young following the first estrous cycle of the season (18/20, 90%). Unsuccessful females were predominantly captive born (20/27, 74%) in this study. It is possible that a proportion of females that do not produce pouch young achieve conception but the timing of reproductive failure continues to be elusive in this species.

The horse-human dyad: can we align horse training and handling activities with the equid social ethogram?

This article examines the recently completed equid ethogram and shows how analogues of social interactions between horses may occur in various human-horse interactions. It discusses how some specific horse-horse interactions have a corresponding horse-human interaction - some of which may be directly beneficial for the horse while others may be unusual or even abnormal. It also shows how correspondent behaviours sometimes become inappropriate because of their duration, consistency or context. One analogue is unlikely to hold true for all horse-human contexts, so when applying any model from horse-horse interactions to human-horse interactions, the limitations of the model may eclipse the intended outcome of the intervention. These limitations are especially likely when the horse is being ridden. Such analyses may help to determine the validity of extrapolating intra-specific interactions to the inter-specific setting, as is advocated by some popular horse-training methods, and highlight the subsequent limitations where humans play the role of the 'alpha mare' or leader in horse handling and training. This examination provides a constructive framework for further informed debate and empirical investigation of the critical features of successful intra-specific interactions.

Effects on behaviour and rein tension on horses ridden with or without martingales and rein inserts.

Unsteady hand position can cause discomfort to the horse, potentially leading to conflict behaviours (CB) such as head tossing or tail lashing. Some instructors feel that martingales or elastic rein inserts can reduce discomfort caused by inexperienced and unsteady hands. Others consider these devices to be inappropriate 'crutches'. Four horses and nine riders were tested under three conditions in random order: plain reins, adjustable training martingales (TM), and elasticised rein inserts (RI). Rein-tension data (7s) and behavioural data (30s) were collected in each direction. Rein-tension data were collected via strain-gauge transducers. Behavioural data were assessed using an ethogram of defined behaviours. No differences in the number of CB were observed. Mean rein tension for TM was higher than that of RI or controls. Relative to the withers, the head was lower for horses ridden with martingales. Carefully fitted martingales may have a place in riding schools that teach novices.

Behavioural and physiological effects of virginiamycin in the diets of horses with stereotypies.

The effects of dietary supplements of virginiamycin on the behaviour and physiology of 17 thoroughbred geldings (five cribbers, six weavers and six control horses) were compared with the effects of a placebo over a period of 16 weeks. Virginiamycin had no effect on the horses' stereotypic behaviour, but it reduced their explorative behaviour, possibly owing to a reduction in feeding motivation. Virginiamycin increased the water intake of the cribbers and decreased the water intake of the control horses, but it was not possible to eliminate possible confounding factors for this effect. Virginiamycin had no other significant effects on the behaviour or physiology of the horses, and had no effect on the digestibility of their diets.

Dogkeeping practices as reported by readers of an Australian dog enthusiast magazine.

OBJECTIVE: To characterise Australian domestic dogkeeping practices relevant to canine health and welfare. PROCEDURE: A quantitative questionnaire was distributed nationally through Dog's Life magazine. Data on management practices, household and dog demographics from 690 Australian dogs in 485 self-selected respondent households were analysed using ordinal and binary regression. RESULTS: Several variables, relating to dog, owner and environment were associated with management practices. The size of the dog correlated positively with being fed outdoors (P < 0.001), gameplaying (P = 0.016) and being trained (P = 0.001) and negatively with time spent indoors (P < 0.001). Neutered dogs were more likely to be walked every day (P = 0.027) and have had prior treatment for unwelcome behaviours (P < 0.001) but less likely to be fed outdoors (P < 0.013). The number of children in the household correlated with the dog being fed outdoors (P < 0.001). The number of adult female humans in the household correlated with dog being neutered (P < 0.001) whereas the reverse was linked to number of adult male humans in the household (P < 0.013). Larger numbers of adult female humans in the household were associated with a higher incidence of prior treatment for unwelcome behaviours (P = 0.020). The number of dogs in the household correlated negatively with dogs being walked every day (P < 0.004) and gameplaying (P = 0.001). Pure bred dogs were more likely to have attended puppy preschool than cross breeds (P = 0.002). CONCLUSION: Reference to previous studies of Australian dog owners suggests that the current data are representative in terms of location of households, sex and age of dogs, however, the proportion of pure bred dogs in the current survey was surprisingly high. This was perhaps because respondents were from a particular sector of the Australian dog-owning population. It must be acknowledged that Dog's Life magazine readers may be atypical of Australian dog owners, nevertheless, the study demonstrates that variables relating to the dog, owner or environment can be used to characterise management styles.

Critical review of dog detection and the influences of physiology, training, and analytical methodologies.

Detection dogs serve a plethora of roles within modern society, and are relied upon to identify threats such as explosives and narcotics. Despite their importance, research and training regarding detection dogs has involved ambiguity. This is partially due to the fact that the assessment of effectiveness regarding detection dogs continues to be entrenched within a traditional, non-scientific understanding. Furthermore, the capabilities of detection dogs are also based on their olfactory physiology and training methodologies, both of which are hampered by knowledge gaps. Additionally, the future of detection dogs is strongly influenced by welfare and social implications. Most importantly however, is the emergence of progressively inexpensive and efficacious analytical methodologies including gas chromatography related techniques, "e-noses", and capillary electrophoresis. These analytical methodologies provide both an alternative and assistor for the detection dog industry, however the interrelationship between these two detection paradigms requires clarification. These factors, when considering their relative contributions, illustrate a need to address research gaps, formalise the detection dog industry and research process, as well as take into consideration analytical methodologies and their influence on the future status of detection dogs. This review offers an integrated assessment of the factors involved in order to determine the current and future status of detection dogs.

Associations of body condition score with health conditions related to overweight and obesity in cats.

OBJECTIVES: To explore the associations of cat body condition score with various health conditions, such as diabetes mellitus, dermatological conditions and hypertension, that have been shown to relate to overweight and/or obesity in cats, dogs or humans. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Electronic patient records between January 3, 2005 and June 21, 2015 were obtained from a cat-focused primary accession clinic in metropolitan Sydney where the body condition score of cats was routinely evaluated. Binomial logistic regression modelling was conducted to investigate the associations, after adjusting for age, sex and breed, between 21 health conditions and body condition score recorded on a 9-point scale. RESULTS: Fourteen of the 21 health conditions examined showed significant associations with an increased body condition score, particularly those of 7 and above. These were dermatological conditions, atopic dermatitis, musculoskeletal conditions, arthritis, hypertension, respiratory conditions, asthma, oral conditions, diarrhoea, general and lower urinary tract conditions, ophthalmic conditions, diabetes mellitus and allergic conditions. Additionally, cats with body condition score of 8 or 9 had significantly higher odds for gastrointestinal conditions and upper urinary tract conditions when compared with cats with body condition score of 5. CLINICAL SIGNIFICANCE: As far as we know, this is the first study reporting positive associations of high body condition score with atopic dermatitis, hypertension, asthma, diarrhoea, ophthalmic conditions and allergic conditions in cats. A large number of positive associations between health conditions and high body condition score indicates that excess fat mass should be given a greater emphasis in preventive health care for cats.

Gastric dilation-volvulus in dogs attending UK emergency-care veterinary practices: prevalence, risk factors and survival.

OBJECTIVE: To report prevalence, risk factors and clinical outcomes for presumptive gastric dilation-volvulus diagnosed among an emergency-care population of UK dogs. METHODS: The study used a cross-sectional design using emergency-care veterinary clinical records from the VetCompass Programme spanning September 1, 2012 to February 28, 2014 and risk factor analysis using multivariable logistic regression modelling. RESULTS: The study population comprised 77,088 dogs attending 50 Vets Now clinics. Overall, 492 dogs had presumptive gastric dilation-volvulus diagnoses, giving a prevalence of 0·64% (95% Confidence interval: 0·58 to 0·70%). Compared with cross-bred dogs, breeds with the highest odds ratios for the diagnosis of presumptive gastric dilation-volvulus were the great Dane (odds ratio: 114·3, 95% Confidence interval 55·1 to 237·1, P<0·001), akita (odds ratio: 84·4, 95% Confidence interval 33·6 to 211·9, P<0·001) and dogue de Bordeaux (odds ratio: 82·9, 95% Confidence interval 39·0 to 176·3, P<0·001). Odds increased as dogs aged up to 12 years and neutered male dogs had 1·3 (95% Confidence interval 1·0 to 1·8, P=0·041) times the odds compared with entire females. Of the cases that were presented alive, 49·7% survived to discharge overall, but 79·3% of surgical cases survived to discharge. CLINICAL SIGNIFICANCE: Approximately 80% of surgically managed cases survived to discharge. Certain large breeds were highly predisposed.

Epidemiology of hyperadrenocorticism among 210,824 dogs attending primary-care veterinary practices in the UK from 2009 to 2014.

OBJECTIVES: To estimate prevalence and risk factors for diagnosis with hyperadrenocorticism in dogs attending primary-care veterinary practices in the UK from 2009 to 2014. METHODS: Cases were identified by searching the de-identified electronic patient records from UK primary-care veterinary practices participating in the VetCompass Programme. RESULTS: The estimated prevalence for hyperadrenocorticism diagnosis in dogs was 0·28% (95% confidence interval: 0·25 to 0·31). Multivariable logistic regression analysis revealed four associated risk factors: breed, breed-relative bodyweight, age and insurance status. The bichon frise had 6·5 times the odds (95% CI: 3·5 to 12·1, P<0·001) of hyperadrenocorticism compared with crossbreds. Dogs weighing more than or equal to their breed mean had 1·7 times the odds (95% CI: 1·3 to 2·3, P<0·001) of hyperadrenocorticism compared with dogs weighing less than the breed mean. Dogs aged 12·0 years and above showed 5·7 times the odds (95% CI: 3·7 to 8·7, P<0·001) of hyperadrenocorticism compared with dogs aged 6·0 to 8·9 years. Insured dogs had 4·0 times the odds (95% CI: 2·8 to 5·6, P<0·001) of hyperadrenocorticism compared with non-insured dogs. CLINICAL SIGNIFICANCE: This is the first epidemiological report of a non-referral hospital population of dogs diagnosed with hyperadrenocorticism in the UK and describes important breed, age and bodyweight associations with this disorder which may improve diagnosis and enhance understanding of the underlying pathophysiology.

Dogs attending primary-care practice in England with clinical signs suggestive of Chiari-like malformation/syringomyelia.

Chiari-like malformation/syringomyelia (CM/SM) in dogs describes a developmental disorder that can cause pain and reduced quality of life. This retrospective study aimed to report the period prevalence, clinical signs and risk factors for diagnosis of symptomatic CM/SM in the veterinary primary-care setting using a cross-sectional design. The study population included all dogs within the VetCompass Programme (September 1, 2009-June 13, 2014). Overall, the period prevalence of symptomatic CM/SM was 0.05 per cent (95 per cent CI 0.04 per cent to 0.06 per cent) for all breeds. The period prevalence in the Cavalier King Charles Spaniel (CKCS) was 1.6 per cent (95 per cent CI 1.2 to 2.06). Other breeds at increased odds included the King Charles Spaniel (KCS), Affenpinscher, Chihuahua and Pomeranian. Insured dogs had 4.6 times the odds (95 per cent CI 2.95 to 7.17) of having a diagnosis of CM/SM compared with uninsured dogs. Pain was the most commonly associated clinical sign (67 dogs, 72 per cent). Analgesics were prescribed to 72 (77.4 per cent) of the symptomatic dogs. Despite its low overall period prevalence, the high proportion of affected dogs identified with chronic pain suggests a significant welfare issue. Financial implications could impede the diagnostic process and lead to underestimation of the true prevalence. This study may help to inform clinicians about the clinical relevance and the need for improved awareness of clinical signs, particularly in high-risk breeds, to optimise the management of CM/SM in primary-care practice.

Prevalence of obesity in dogs examined by Australian veterinary practices and the risk factors involved.

A study was undertaken to determine the prevalence of obesity in dogs examined by veterinary practices across Australia, and to determine the risk factors involved; 1700 practices were asked to complete a veterinarian opinion survey, and of the 428 practices that responded, 178 were selected to complete an RSPCA Australia Pet Obesity Questionnaire, together with additional practices selected by Australian State and Territory RSPCA societies. This questionnaire was sent to a total of 209 practices which were asked to record details of eligible dogs, and the reason why they had been examined during the previous month. Fifty-two (24.9 per cent) of the practices responded and provided data on 2661 dogs, of which 892 (33.5 per cent) were overweight and 201 (7.6 per cent) were obese. A further 112 dogs (4.2 per cent) were classified as thin or very thin, but these were excluded from subsequent analyses. Of the remaining 2549 dogs, approximately half were female and 1905 (74.7 per cent) were neutered. The dogs' weight category was influenced by several factors. Breed influenced the importance of sex and neutering as risk factors. The prevalence of overweight and obese dogs combined was 41 per cent; the prevalence increased with age up to about 10 years old, and then declined. Rural and semirural dogs were more at risk of obesity than urban and suburban dogs.

Degenerative mitral valve disease: Survival of dogs attending primary-care practice in England.

This study aimed to evaluate survival of dogs with degenerative mitral valve disease (DMVD). A retrospective cohort study of dogs with DMVD attending primary-care practices in England was undertaken. Cases of DMVD were identified within the electronic patient records (EPRs) of practices sharing data with VetCompass. Kaplan-Meier curves were used to explore survival and Cox regression models identified factors associated with hazard of death. The EPRs from 111,967 dogs, attending 93 veterinary practices between January 2010 and December 2011 identified 405 cases diagnosed with DMVD giving a prevalence of diagnosed DMVD of 0.36% (95% CI: 0.29-0.45%). A further 3557 dogs were classified as possible cases (heart murmurs consistent with DMVD). Overall, a total of 3962 dogs were classified as heart murmur cases (possible and diagnosed DMVD), giving a prevalence of 3.54% (95% CI: 3.26-3.84%). One hundred and sixteen (28.6%) of the diagnosed DMVD cases were incident, newly diagnosed with DMVD. The mean age at diagnosis was 9.52 years (95% CI: 8.98-10.14 years). Fifty-eight (50.0%) of the incident cases died during the study period. The median survival time (MST) for all-cause mortality was 25.4 months (95% CI: 20.4-34.4 months) after disease detection for DMVD cases. For possible cases, 121 (29.7%) from a random sample of 407 possible DMVD cases were incident cases (newly detected heart murmur consistent with DMVD during the study period). The mean age at which a heart murmur was first recorded in possible cases was 9.73 years (95% CI: 9.02-10.44 years). Forty-nine (40.5%) possible cases died during the study period. The MST for all-cause mortality was 33.8 months (95% CI: 23.7-43.1 months) after a heart murmur was initially detected. In the multivariable survival analysis for possible and diagnosed cases, Cavalier King Charles Spaniels (CKCSs) and other purebreds had higher hazards of death than crossbreds. Dogs weighing ≥20.0kg and older dogs had an increased hazard of death compared with those <20.0kg and younger dogs, respectively. The study highlights poorer survival for all-cause mortality in CKCSs and larger dogs. The reported survival characteristics could aid veterinary surgeons' advice on the prognosis for dogs with DMVD and help the assessment of the impact of the condition at a population level.

Prevalence of and risk factors for degenerative mitral valve disease in dogs attending primary-care veterinary practices in England.

BACKGROUND: To date, epidemiological studies on degenerative mitral valve disease (DMVD) in dogs have largely reported referral caseloads or been limited to predisposed breeds. Analysis of primary-care data to identify factors associated with DMVD would help clinicians identify high-risk individuals and improve understanding. OBJECTIVES: To estimate the prevalence of and identify risk factors for DMVD in dogs attending primary-care veterinary practices in England. ANIMALS: Cases were identified within the electronic patient records of 111,967 dogs attending 93 practices. Four hundred and 5 dogs were diagnosed with DMVD (diagnosed cases) and a further 3,557 dogs had a heart murmur (HM) consistent with DMVD (possible cases). METHODS: Retrospective cross-sectional study design. Prevalence was adjusted for the sampling approach. Mixed effects logistic regression models identified factors associated with DMVD. RESULTS: Prevalence estimates of diagnosed DMVD and HMs consistent with DMVD (both diagnosed and possible cases) were 0.36% (95% confidence interval [CI]: 0.29-0.45) and 3.54% (95% CI: 3.26-3.84) respectively. In the multivariable analysis, males had higher odds of diagnosed DMVD than did females (odds ratio [OR] 1.40, 95% CI: 1.12-1.74). Insured dogs had increased odds of DMVD compared with noninsured dogs (OR 3.56, 95% CI: 2.79-4.55) and dogs ≥20 kg had approximately half the odds of DMVD diagnosis compared with dogs <20 kg (OR 0.51, 95% CI: 0.36-0.74). Strong associations between a DMVD diagnosis and individual breeds and age were identified. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL IMPORTANCE: Degenerative mitral valve disease was a common disorder in practice-attending dogs. Knowledge of identified risk factors for DMVD could improve clinical diagnosis and direct future research.

Management factors associated with stereotypic and redirected behaviour in the thoroughbred horse.

A greater knowledge of the effect of management factors is required to investigate the ontogeny of abnormal behaviour in the stabled horse. A postal survey of racehorse (flat) trainers yielded information about 22 yard and management factors. The relationship of the factors to the prevalence of abnormal behaviour was analysed by logistic regression. Management factors related to the time spent in the stable showed the strongest associations with stereotypic behaviour. The risk of horses performing abnormal behaviour increased: 1) as the amount of forage fell below 6.8 kg/day, 2) when bedding types other than straw were used, 3) when the total number of horses on the yard was fewer than 75, 4) in association with box designs that minimised contact between neighbouring horses, 5) when hay, rather than other types of forage, was used.

Radiographic and endoscopic study of horses performing an oral based stereotypy.

There is confusion in the veterinary literature concerning the definition of oral based stereotypies in the horse. This study reports the use of fluoroscopy and endoscopy during cribbiting/wind-sucking in afflicted horses. This permitted observations of movements of the pharyngeal and oesophageal tissues and of the air column within during the stereotypic behaviour. The findings reported show that the sequence of events during crib-biting/wind-sucking is not related to deglutition and that air is not swallowed to the stomach. Transient dilation of the upper oesophagus was recorded and the characteristic noise of wind-sucking coincided with the in-rush of air through the cricopharynx. The oesophageal distension was relieved when the air returned to the pharynx although small quantities passed caudally. It is proposed that the role of contraction of the strap muscles of the neck is to create a pressure gradient in the soft tissues surrounding the oesophagus which provokes movement of air from the pharynx into the oesophagus. The findings suggest that the definitions currently used in the sale of horses are in need of revision.

Survey of the designs of racehorse stables in the south west of England.

The design of 96 racehorse stables in the south west of England were surveyed. The 'typical' racehorse is kept in a loose box, bedded on straw and remains indoors while the stable is cleaned. It is given a floor area of 12 m2 and shares its airspace of 39 m3 with seven other horses. Overall, the predicted minimum rate of air change by natural convection in calm winds is 6.6 air changes/h but this is reduced to 2.2 if the top door of the stable is closed. On balance, racehorse stables in use today are based on designs which are worse overall than the best available in the 19th century.