A comparison of population estimation techniques for individually unidentifiable free-roaming dogs.

BACKGROUND: Measuring the size of free roaming dog populations quickly and accurately is critical in the implementation of numerous preventive health and population control interventions. However, few studies have investigated the relative performance of population size assessment tools when applied to dogs. The aim of this study was to compare the commonly used mark-resight methodology with distance sampling methods, which are less resource intensive, to estimate free-roaming dog abundance in Goa, India. Twenty-six working zones were surveyed along all roads twice by the same surveyor at the same time of day, following a vaccination campaign which included marking of vaccinated dogs with a coloured paint. The Chapman estimate was then used to evaluate the mark-resight abundance. Additionally, the number of dogs and perpendicular distance from the road for all dogs sighted was recorded. This was used to estimate dog density and abundance using distance sampling methods. The detection function was fitted based on goodness-of-fit and AIC. RESULTS: The Chapman abundance estimate for the entire study area was 5202 dogs (95%CI 4733.8-5671.0), and the distance sampling method abundance estimate was 5067 dogs (95%CI 4454.3-5764.2). For individual working zones, after taking other factors into account in a mixed effects model, the average distance sampling estimate was 35% higher (95%CI 20-53%) than the Chapman estimate. There was also evidence of a difference in estimates between surveyors of 21% (95%CI 7-37%) and between days (22% lower on day 2, 95%CI 8-38%) for individual working zones. CONCLUSION: Our study demonstrated that the distance sampling estimates were comparable overall to the Chapman method of abundance estimation of free roaming dogs across the entire study region but there was noticeable variation between the two methods when individual zones were compared. Consequently, distance sampling methods may be suitable to enumerate dogs over large areas in a more time efficient manner than the widely used mark-resight approach.

Investigation of short-term surgical complications in a low-resource, high-volume dog sterilisation clinic in India.

BACKGROUND: Surgical sterilisation is currently the method of choice for controlling free-roaming dog populations. However, there are significant logistical challenges to neutering large numbers of dogs in low-resource clinics. The aim of this study was to investigate the incidence of short-term surgical complications in a low-resource sterilisation clinic which did not routinely administer post-operative antibiotics. The medical records of all sterilisation surgeries performed in 2015 at the Worldwide Veterinary Service International Training Centre in Tamil Nadu, India were reviewed (group A) to assess immediate surgical complications. All animals in this group were monitored for at least 24 h post-surgery but were not released until assessed by a veterinarian as having uncomplicated wound healing. In the second part of this study from August to December 2015, 200 free-roaming dogs undergoing sterilisation surgery, were monitored for a minimum of 4-days post-surgery to further assess postoperative complications (group B). RESULTS: Surgery related complications were seen in 5.4% (95%CI, 4.5-6.5%) of the 1998 group A dogs monitored for at least 24 h, and in 7.0% (3.9-11.5%) of the 200 group B dogs monitored for 4 days. Major complications were classed as those requiring an intervention and resulted in increased morbidity or mortality. Major complications were seen in 2.8% (2.1-3.6%) and 1.5% (3.1-4.3%) of group A and B, respectively. Minor complications requiring little or no intervention were recorded for 2.6% (1.9-3.4%) for group A and 5.5% (2.8-9.6%) for group B. There was no evidence for a difference in complication rates between the two groups in a multivariate regression model. CONCLUSION: This study demonstrated that high volume, low-resource sterilisation of dogs can be performed with a low incidence of surgical complications and low mortality.

The problem of stray dogs.

The effective management of stray dogs is critically important in any rabies vaccination programme. In many rabies-endemic countries, stray dogs represent a significant proportion of both the free-roaming and total dog populations, and to ensure that rabies elimination programmes are successful, it is essential that this portion of the dog population (stray dogs) is vaccinated at high coverage. However, there are a number of challenges to managing and delivering rabies vaccinations to stray dogs. This paper will review the most pertinent issues relating to the problem of stray dogs and rabies elimination, focusing on the challenges relating to the estimation of population size, vaccination administration and vaccine coverage assessment in stray dog populations. The authors will highlight how these challenges can be overcome, notably by reviewing the census techniques that have been employed to assess stray dog populations, which then facilitate the planning and design of vaccination programmes. In addition, they discuss the range of vaccination strategies that are available and that have been used to vaccinate stray dogs and review how vaccination coverage can be assessed in this population. Finally, the benefits of population management in stray dogs through neutering programmes are reviewed. In short, this paper highlights the importance of ensuring that stray dogs, as well as owned dogs, are included in vaccination programmes and emphasises that many of the challenges related to protecting stray dogs from rabies can be overcome.

L'efficacité de la gestion des populations de chiens errants est un aspect essentiel de tout programme de vaccination contre la rage. Dans de nombreux pays où la rage est endémique, les chiens errants constituent un segment important des populations de chiens laissés en liberté et plus généralement de la population canine totale, de sorte que le succès des programmes d'élimination de la rage repose sur l'impératif d'assurer une forte couverture vaccinale au sein de cette partie de la population canine. Toutefois, s'agissant des chiens errants la gestion de la vaccination et l'administration des vaccins antirabiques présentent des difficultés particulières. Les auteurs font le point sur les principales questions posées par la problématique des chiens errants dans une perspective d'élimination de la rage, qui concernent notamment la difficulté d'évaluer la taille des populations concernées, d'administrer les vaccins dans ce cadre et d'évaluer la couverture vaccinale obtenue. Les auteurs soulignent les réponses qui peuvent être apportées à ces problèmes, en particulier en revoyant les techniques de recensement appliquées jusqu'à présent pour évaluer les populations de chiens errants, ce qui permettra ensuite de faciliter la planification et la conception des programmes de vaccination. En outre, ils examinent les différentes stratégies de vaccination mises en oeuvre en la matière et font le point sur les moyens d'évaluer la couverture vaccinale de ces populations. Enfin, ils analysent les avantages apportés par les programmes de stérilisation pour maîtriser les populations de chiens errants. En résumé, cet article met l'accent sur l'importance d'inclure les chiens errants au même titre que les chiens ayant un maître dans les programmes de vaccination et souligne que la plupart des difficultés liées à la protection des chiens errants contre la rage peuvent être résolues.

Uno de los aspectos capitales de todo programa de vacunación antirrábica es la gestión eficaz de las poblaciones de perros vagabundos. En muchos países con rabia endémica, estos perros representan un porcentaje sustancial tanto de la población canina total como de los perros en libertad. El éxito de todo programa de eliminación de la rabia pasa necesariamente por lograr una elevada cobertura de vacunación en este segmento de la población canina (los perros vagabundos). Sin embargo, la gestión y la vacunación antirrábica de los perros vagabundos presentan una serie de dificultades. Los autores pasan revista a los aspectos que más inciden en el problema de los perros vagabundos y la eliminación de la rabia, prestando especial atención a las dificultades que presentan la estimación del tamaño de la población, la administración de vacunas y el cálculo de la cobertura de vacunación de las poblaciones de perros vagabundos. Después explican la manera de superar estas dificultades, en particular describiendo las técnicas de censo empleadas para calcular el tamaño de las poblaciones, lo que a su vez facilita la concepción y planificación de programas de vacunación. Además, describen el arsenal existente de procedimientos de vacunación que se han utilizado para vacunar a los perros vagabundos y explican cómo estimar en estas poblaciones la cobertura de vacunación. Por último exponen los beneficios de gestionar las poblaciones de perros vagabundos con programas de esterilización. En resumidas cuentas, los autores recalcan aquí la importancia de que los programas de vacunación canina lleguen a los perros vagabundos, y no solo a los animales con dueño, e insisten en que muchos de los problemas que se plantean para proteger de la rabia a los perros vagabundos tienen solución.

Not just in man's best friend: A review of Staphylococcus pseudintermedius host range and human zoonosis.

Staphylococcus pseudintermedius is one species in the commensal staphylococcal population in dogs. While it is commonly carried on healthy companion dogs it is also an opportunistic pathogen associated with a range of skin, ear, wound and other infections. While adapted to dogs, it is not restricted to them, and we have reviewed its host range, including increasing reports of human colonisation and infections. Despite its association with pet dogs, S. pseudintermedius is found widely in animals, covering companion, livestock and free-living species of birds and mammals. Human infections, typically in immunocompromised individuals, are increasingly being recognised, in part due to improved diagnosis. Colonisation, infection, and antimicrobial resistance, including frequent multidrug resistance, among S. pseudintermedius isolates represent important One Health challenges.

Community attitudes and perceptions towards free-roaming dogs in Goa, India.

Free-roaming dogs (FRD) represent a large proportion of the canine population in India and are often implicated as a source of conflict with humans. However, objective data on the attitudes and perceptions of local communities toward FRD are lacking. This study collected baseline data from 1141 households in Goa, India, on FRD feeding practices and assessed people's attitudes toward FRD in urban and rural communities. Additionally, respondents identified problems caused by FRD and proposed potential solutions.The study reported that 37% of respondents fed FRD with dog owners and Hindus being the most likely to feed. The majority of respondents agreed FRD were a menace (57%), a nuisance (58%) and scary (60%). Most respondents also agreed FRD were a vulnerable population (59%), that belong in communities (66%) and have a right to live on the streets (53%). Barking was the most commonly reported problem associated with FRD and the preferred solution was to impound FRD in shelters. This study reveals the complex and often misunderstood relationship between local communities and FRD and highlights potential strategies to reduce human-dog conflict.

Capturing free-roaming dogs for sterilisation: A multi-site study in Goa, India.

Sterilisation and rabies vaccination programs seek to manage free-roaming domestic dog (Canis familiaris) populations with the aim to reduce inter-species disease transmission and conflicts. As effective, permanent, remotely-administered options are not yet available for sterilisation, and oral vaccination is not yet commonly used; free-roaming dogs are typically captured for these interventions. There is a paucity of information describing how dog capture rates change over time within defined areas following repeated capture efforts. This data is needed to allow efficient dog capture programmes to be developed. Using spatial co-ordinates of dog capture, we characterise where dogs are more likely to be captured in six catch-sterilise-release campaigns, in Goa state, India. Combining capture numbers with population survey data collected in five sites, we document the increasing difficulty of catching entire (non-sterilised) dogs as sterilisation coverage increases and demonstrate how this leads to increased unit costs. Accounting for the extra resources required to capture dogs when sterilisation coverage is high will improve estimation of the resources required to manage free-roaming dog populations and assist in planning the most efficient intervention strategies.

Dogs with congenital porto-systemic shunting (cPSS) and hepatic encephalopathy have higher serum concentrations of C-reactive protein than asymptomatic dogs with cPSS.

Hepatic encephalopathy (HE) is a cause of significant morbidity and mortality in patients with liver disorders and a wide range of rodent models of HE have been described to facilitate studies into the pathogenesis and treatment of HE. However, it is widely acknowledged that no individual model perfectly mimics human HE and there is a particular need for spontaneous, larger animal models. One common congenital abnormality in dogs is the portosystemic shunt (cPSS) which causes clinical signs that are similar to human HE such as ataxia, disorientation, lethargy and occasionally coma. As inflammation has recently been shown to be associated with HE in humans, we hypothesised that inflammation would similarly be associated with HE in dogs with cPSS. To examine this hypothesis we measured C-reactive protein (CRP) in 30 healthy dogs, 19 dogs with a cPSS and no HE and 27 dogs with a cPSS and overt HE. There was a significant difference in CRP concentration between healthy dogs and dogs with HE (p < 0.001) and between dogs with HE and without HE (p < 0.05). The novel finding that there is an association between inflammation and canine HE strengthens the concept that HE in dogs with cPSS shares a similar pathogenesis to humans with HE. Consequently, dogs with a cPSS may be a good spontaneous model of human HE in which to further examine the role of inflammation and development of HE.

Free-roaming dog population dynamics in Ranchi, India.

Rabies causes approximately 20,000 human deaths in India each year. Nearly all of these occur following dog bites. Large-scale, high-coverage dog rabies vaccination campaigns are the cornerstone of rabies elimination strategies in both human and dog populations, although this is particularly challenging to achieve in India as a large proportion of the dog population are free-roaming and unowned. Further, little is known about free-roaming dog ecology in India which makes defining optimum vaccination strategies difficult. In this study, data collected using a mobile phone application during three annual mass vaccination and neutering (surgical sterilisation of both males and females) campaigns of free-roaming dogs in Ranchi, India (during which a total of 43,847 vaccinations, 26,213 neuter surgeries and 28,172 re-sight observations were made) were interrogated, using two novel approaches to estimate the proportion of neutered dogs that were lost from the city (assumed due to mortality or migration) between campaign years. Analysis revealed high losses of neutered dogs each year, ranging from 25.3% (28.2-22.8) to 55.8% (57.0-54.6). We also estimated that the total population declined by 12.58% (9.89-15.03) over the three-year period. This demonstrates that there is a high turnover of free-roaming dogs and that despite neutering a large number of dogs in an annual sterilisation campaign, the decline in population size was modest over a three-year time period. These findings have significant implications for the planning of rabies vaccination campaigns and population management programmes as well as highlighting the need for further research into the demographics of free-roaming, unowned dogs in India.

Elimination of human rabies in Goa, India through an integrated One Health approach.

Dog-mediated rabies kills tens of thousands of people each year in India, representing one third of the estimated global rabies burden. Whilst the World Health Organization (WHO), World Organization for Animal Health (OIE) and the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) have set a target for global dog-mediated human rabies elimination by 2030, examples of large-scale dog vaccination programs demonstrating elimination remain limited in Africa and Asia. We describe the development of a data-driven rabies elimination program from 2013 to 2019 in Goa State, India, culminating in human rabies elimination and a 92% reduction in monthly canine rabies cases. Smartphone technology enabled systematic spatial direction of remote teams to vaccinate over 95,000 dogs at 70% vaccination coverage, and rabies education teams to reach 150,000 children annually. An estimated 2249 disability-adjusted life years (DALYs) were averted over the program period at 526 USD per DALY, making the intervention 'very cost-effective' by WHO definitions. This One Health program demonstrates that human rabies elimination is achievable at the state level in India.

Immunohistochemical characterization of lymphocyte and myeloid cell infiltrates in spirocercosis-induced oesophageal nodules.

Spirocerca lupi is a nematode that infects the dog's oesophagus and promotes the formation of an inflammatory fibroblastic nodule that progresses to sarcoma in approximately 25% of cases. Spirocercosis-associated oesophageal sarcoma is an excellent and under-utilized spontaneous model of parasite-associated malignancy. The inflammatory infiltrate of paraffin-embedded, non-neoplastic oesophageal nodules (n = 46), neoplastic nodules (n = 25) and normal oesophagus (n = 14) was examined by immunohistochemistry using MAC387 (myeloid cells), CD3 (T cells), Pax5 (B cells) and FoxP3 (T regulatory cells) antibodies. Myeloid cells predominated in 70% of nodules, in pockets around the worms' migratory tracts and in necro-ulcerative areas in neoplastic cases. T cells predominated in 23% of cases with a focal or diffuse distribution, in the nodule periphery. No significant differences were observed between neoplastic and non-neoplastic stages. FoxP3+ cells were observed in low numbers, not significantly different from the controls. The inflammation in spirocercosis is characterized by pockets of pus surrounded by organized lymphoid foci. There was no evidence of a local accumulation of FoxP3+ cells, unlike many previous studies that have reported an increase in FoxP3+ T cells in both malignancies and parasite infections. The triggering factor(s) driving the malignant transformation of the spirocercosis-associated chronic inflammatory nodule warrants further investigation.

Vitamin D metabolism and disorders in dogs and cats.

Vitamin D plays an important role in regulating calcium metabolism and in the development and maintenance of skeletal health of companion animals. There is also a growing interest in understanding the role vitamin D plays in non-skeletal health in both human and veterinary patients. This review provides an update of our current understanding of vitamin D biology in dogs and cats and gives an overview of how vitamin D metabolism can be assessed in companion animals. Congenital and acquired vitamin D disorders are then summarised before the review concludes with a summary of recent studies which have explored the role of vitamin D in the development and outcomes of non-skeletal diseases of dogs and cats.

Timing of reproduction and association with environmental factors in female free-roaming dogs in southern India.

Annual peaks in reproductive activity have been identified in multiple domestic dog populations. However, there is little evidence to describe how these peaks may be associated with environmental factors such as daylength, which plays a well-established role in breeding patterns of seasonally-reproductive species. Data were collected 2016-2020 during 7,743 and 4,681 neuter surgeries on adult female unowned free-roaming dogs in veterinary clinics in Goa and Tamil Nadu respectively. Temperature, precipitation, relative humidity, and daylength data were gathered for time periods preceding the neuter surgery that may have influenced the likelihood of pregnancy (potential influence periods). A multivariable generalised additive model was used to assess the relationship between these factors and pregnancy. The prevalence of pregnancy varied by month in both locations indicating seasonality of reproduction in these groups. The annual pattern was more distinct in Goa with a peak in pregnancies between September and December. In Goa, decreasing daylength was associated with a higher probability of pregnancy (p = 0.040). Decreasing temperature was associated with decreasing probability of pregnancy in the Nilgiris (p = 0.034). Bitches had a median of 6 foetuses, with no evidence of seasonal variation. Environmental factors were associated with patterns of pregnancy in free-roaming dogs, however statistically-significant factors varied by geographical location. Establishing local seasonal patterns of breeding in free-roaming dogs and assessing their relationship with environmental influences is recommended to facilitate effective and efficient population management strategies, which aim to reduce conflict between human and free-roaming dog populations.

Whole blood manganese concentrations in dogs with congenital portosystemic shunts.

BACKGROUND: Manganese (Mn) is an essential mineral that is a cofactor for many enzymes required in the synthesis of proteins, carbohydrates, and lipids. Because hepatic clearance is essential in Mn homeostasis, conditions in humans resulting in hepatic insufficiency including cirrhosis and both acquired and congenital portosystemic shunting have been reported to result in increased blood Mn concentrations and increased Mn content in the central nervous system. Because Mn toxicity causes neurologic disturbances, increased Mn concentrations have been implicated in the pathogenesis of hepatic encephalopathy. HYPOTHESES: Dogs with congenital portosystemic shunts (cPSS) have significantly higher whole blood Mn concentrations than do healthy dogs or those with nonhepatic illnesses. ANIMALS: Eighteen dogs with cPSS, 26 dogs with nonhepatic illnesses, and 14 healthy dogs. METHODS: Whole blood Mn was measured by graphite furnace atomic absorption spectrometry. The diagnosis of cPSS was made by ultrasonography or during celiotomy either by visual inspection of a shunting vessel or portovenography. RESULTS: Dogs with a cPSS had significantly higher whole blood Mn concentrations than did healthy dogs and dogs with nonhepatic illnesses. Whole blood Mn concentrations were not significantly different between healthy dogs and dogs with non-hepatic illnesses. CONCLUSION AND CLINICAL IMPORTANCE: Dogs with a cPSS have significantly increased whole blood Mn concentrations. Additional studies are warranted to investigate the role of Mn in cPSS-associated hepatic encephalopathy.

Systematic review of the prevalence of suicide in veterinary surgeons.

BACKGROUND: An accumulating body of research demonstrates that risk of suicide varies between occupational groups. Identification of the occupations at risk, and the factors that contribute to the increased risk of suicide in these groups is essential for the development of effective suicide prevention strategies. There is preliminary evidence to suggest that veterinary surgeons are a group at risk. AIMS: To conduct a systematic review of studies of rates and methods of suicide in the veterinary profession. METHODS: A systematic search of the international research literature was performed in May 2008. The data from the 19 studies of the prevalence of suicide in the veterinary profession were extracted by two independent reviewers and analysed. RESULTS: Between 0 and 43% of veterinary surgeon deaths were due to suicide. In all but one of the 15 studies presenting risk of suicide in veterinary surgeons with a comparison population, an elevated risk was found. The better quality studies with the lowest risk of bias indicated that in the UK, the rate of suicide in the veterinary profession was at least three times the general population rate. Studies of the methods of suicide veterinary surgeons use suggest that self-poisoning and firearms are particularly common. CONCLUSIONS: There appears to be an elevated risk of suicide for veterinary surgeons in several countries. Access to means of suicide influences the methods used and may contribute to increased risk.

Investigation of the relationship between ionised and total calcium in dogs with ionised hypercalcaemia.

OBJECTIVES: To investigate the relationship between total and ionised calcium concentrations in dogs with ionised hypercalcaemia and to evaluate how albumin influences this relationship. METHODS: Initially, a reference interval for ionised and total calcium was established using a large population of healthy adult dogs. Our teaching hospital clinical database was searched to identify adult dogs with ionised hypercalcaemia between 2012 and 2017, a time frame when the same sample handling and analysis protocols were in place as for the healthy reference interval population. The relationship between ionised and total calcium concentrations was then examined in the ionised hypercalcaemia population. RESULTS: Based on biochemical analysis of 351 healthy adult dogs, a reference interval of 1.18 to 1.53 mmol/L for ionised calcium and 2.24 to 2.85 mmol/L for total calcium was established. Using these reference intervals, 63 dogs with ionised hypercalcaemia were identified, of which 23 did not have total hypercalcaemia. Only seven of the 23 dogs with ionised hypercalcaemia and total calcium below the upper limit of the reference interval had hypoalbuminemia. The majority of dogs with ionised hypercalcemia and normal total calcium had a modest increase in ionised calcium. CLINICAL SIGNIFICANCE: If relying on total calcium alone, more than one third of dogs with ionised hypercalcaemia will be classified as normocalcaemic and the majority of these dogs had normal serum albumin.

Incidence of alcohol-related deaths in the veterinary profession in England and Wales, 1993-2005.

It has recently been shown that the proportional mortality ratio for suicide by veterinarians is one of the highest of all occupational groups. The reasons for this alarming statistic are unclear although it has been postulated that alcohol or drug misuse may be significant risk factors which contribute towards the high incidence of suicide within the profession. However, there have been few studies on alcohol misuse by veterinarians and so the aim of this study was to investigate the incidence of alcohol-related deaths in the veterinary profession in England and Wales between 1993 and 2005. The proportional mortality ratio for alcohol-related deaths for veterinarians was not significantly higher than the general population during this time period. Future studies should focus on establishing the incidence of sub-lethal alcohol misuse within the veterinary profession.

Serum cardiac troponin I concentrations in cattle with cardiac and noncardiac disorders.

BACKGROUND: Making a clinical diagnosis of pericarditis in cattle is difficult and additional diagnostic tests are needed to evaluate cattle with suspected pericarditis. Serum cardiac troponin I (cTnI) concentrations are increased in cattle with pericarditis, but the utility of measuring serum cTnI concentrations in cattle with suspected pericarditis in cattle remains unclear. OBJECTIVES: To determine if serum cTnI concentrations in cattle can be used to differentiate pericarditis from other cardiac disorders and noncardiac thoracic diseases. ANIMALS: Seventy-seven clinically diseased cattle and 19 healthy control cattle. METHODS: Serum cTnI concentrations were measured using an Immunlite Troponin I immunometric chemiluminescent assay in consecutive cases of postmortem-confirmed pericarditis (n=18), endocarditis (n=15), chronic suppurative pneumonia (n=13), congenital heart disease (n=10), reticulitis (n=3), mediastinal abscess (n=7), thymic lymphoma (n=6), and caudal vena cava thrombosis (n=5). Serum cTnI concentrations were measured in 19 healthy cattle. RESULTS: Although serum cTnI concentrations were significantly higher in cattle with pericarditis compared with healthy cattle, they were not significantly different from concentrations in cattle with endocarditis, congenital cardiac disease, mediastinal abscess, reticulitis, caudal vena cava thrombosis, or chronic suppurative pneumonia. CONCLUSIONS: Serum cTnI cannot be used to distinguish cattle with pericarditis from cattle with other primary cardiac diseases. In addition, serum cTnI concentrations cannot distinguish between cattle with primary cardiac diseases and those with other noncardiac, intrathoracic disorders.

Admissions processes at the seven United Kingdom veterinary schools: a review.

The major challenge in veterinary undergraduate admissions is to select those students with most suitability for veterinary training and careers from a large and diverse pool of applicants with very high academic ability. This paper describes a review of the admissions processes of the seven veterinary schools in the UK. There was significant commonality in the entry requirements and the criteria upon which the schools made decisions on candidates. There was some variation in the procedures used by individual schools to select candidates, but common themes existed within these processes. All of the schools evaluated both academic and non-academic factors for individual applicants, and all used interviews in some format as a selection tool after an initial short-listing process. The procedures and approaches to selection processes are compared and discussed.

Development of non-governmental organisation-academic partnership to tackle rabies in Africa and Asia.

Rabies kills approximately 60,000 people each year, mainly in sub-Saharan Africa and Asia, of which 40% of victims are less than 15 years old. Once clinical signs develop, the disease is almost invariably fatal. Globally, rabies has been estimated to cause 3∙7 million disability-adjusted life years and $8∙6B in economic losses annually. The vast majority of human rabies cases are caused by bites from rabies-infected dogs. Despite this loss of human life and resultant economic and societal costs, rabies can be prevented in both humans and dogs by vaccination. This has been demonstrated in many countries, notably in Central and South America, where large-scale, high coverage mass dog vaccination programmes have dramatically reduced the incidence of rabies. Even in parts of Africa and Asia, projects have shown that rabies can be eliminated locally. Nevertheless, rabies remains an important cause of mortality in many sub-Saharan and Asian countries. The reasons why some countries have been able to effectively eliminate rabies whereas others have not are complex and often impossible to definitively identify; commonly cited explanations include political, economic, logistical and societal barriers.

Implementation of high coverage mass rabies vaccination in rural Uganda using predominantly static point methodology.

Despite successful eradication programmes in many regions, rabies remains responsible for approximately 60,000 human deaths annually, and no country in Africa is rabies-free. Dogs are the principal reservoir of the virus in Africa and the World Health Organisation recommends that at least 70% of the dog population be vaccinated in order to break the transmission cycle. Most attempts at mass rabies vaccinations in Africa have failed to vaccinate high numbers of dogs at a high coverage. Successful studies have often used a door-to-door (DTD) approach, which is logistically challenging and expensive compared to a static point (SP) approach. Mission Rabies has successfully implemented a combined SP and DTD method in cities in India and Malawi. This campaign used a combined methodology in rural Uganda, starting with a SP campaign, followed by a DTD campaign, and then subsequent transect surveys to assess vaccination coverage. This was facilitated by the use of a smartphone application which recorded all vaccinations and survey responses along with their Global Positioning System location. A total of 4172 dogs were vaccinated in 7 days, attaining an estimated 88.4% coverage. This campaign is of particular note as 95.9% of the vaccinations were performed at SPs. The human-to-dog ratio was 4.9 with a mean dogs per house of 1.2. Most dogs were owned (93.7%). This demonstrates that high-number, high-coverage vaccination is achievable in rural Uganda and provides data that may refine future campaign approaches.