A Structure-Function-Inhibition Analysis of the Pseudomonas aeruginosa Type III Secretion Needle Protein PscF.

The Pseudomonas aeruginosa type III secretion system (T3SS) needle comprised of multiple PscF subunits is essential for the translocation of effector toxins into human cells, facilitating the establishment and dissemination of infection. Mutations in the pscF gene provide resistance to the phenoxyacetamide (PhA) series of T3SS inhibitory chemical probes. To better understand PscF functions and interactions with PhA, alleles of pscF with 71 single mutations altering 49 of the 85 residues of the encoded protein were evaluated for their effects on T3SS phenotypes. Of these, 37% eliminated and 63% maintained secretion, with representatives of both evenly distributed across the entire protein. Mutations in 14 codons conferred a degree of PhA resistance without eliminating secretion, and all but one were in the alpha-helical C-terminal 25% of PscF. PhA-resistant mutants exhibited no cross-resistance to two T3SS inhibitors with different chemical scaffolds. Two mutations caused constitutive T3SS secretion. The pscF allele at its native locus, whether wild type (WT), constitutive, or PhA resistant, was dominant over other pscF alleles expressed from nonnative loci and promoters, but mixed phenotypes were observed in chromosomal ΔpscF strains with both WT and mutant alleles at nonnative loci. Some PhA-resistant mutants exhibited reduced translocation efficiency that was improved in a PhA dose-dependent manner, suggesting that PhA can bind to those resistant needles. In summary, these results are consistent with a direct interaction between PhA inhibitors and the T3SS needle, suggest a mechanism of blocking conformational changes, and demonstrate that PscF affects T3SS regulation, as well as carrying out secretion and translocation.IMPORTANCEP. aeruginosa effector toxin translocation into host innate immune cells is critical for the establishment and dissemination of P. aeruginosa infections. The medical need for new anti-P. aeruginosa agents is evident by the fact that P. aeruginosa ventilator-associated pneumonia is associated with a high mortality rate (40 to 69%) and recurs in >30% of patients, even with standard-of-care antibiotic therapy. The results described here confirm roles for the PscF needle in T3SS secretion and translocation and suggest that it affects regulation, possibly by interaction with T3SS regulatory proteins. The results also support a model of direct interaction of the needle with PhA and suggest that, with further development, members of the PhA series may prove useful as drugs for P. aeruginosa infection.

Novel Small Molecule Entry Inhibitors of Ebola Virus.

BACKGROUND: The current Ebola virus (EBOV) outbreak has highlighted the troubling absence of available antivirals or vaccines to treat infected patients and stop the spread of EBOV. The EBOV glycoprotein (GP) plays critical roles in the early stage of virus infection, including receptor binding and membrane fusion, making it a potential target for the development of anti-EBOV drugs. We report the identification of 2 novel EBOV inhibitors targeting viral entry. METHODS: To identify small molecule inhibitors of EBOV entry, we carried out a cell-based high-throughput screening using human immunodeficiency virus-based pseudotyped viruses expressing EBOV-GP. Two compounds were identified, and mechanism-of-action studies were performed using immunoflourescence, AlphaLISA, and enzymatic assays for cathepsin B inhibition. RESULTS: We report the identification of 2 novel entry inhibitors. These inhibitors (1) inhibit EBOV infection (50% inhibitory concentration, approximately 0.28 and approximately 10 µmol/L) at a late stage of entry, (2) induce Niemann-Pick C phenotype, and (3) inhibit GP-Niemann-Pick C1 (NPC1) protein interaction. CONCLUSIONS: We have identified 2 novel EBOV inhibitors, MBX2254 and MBX2270, that can serve as starting points for the development of an anti-EBOV therapeutic agent. Our findings also highlight the importance of NPC1-GP interaction in EBOV entry and the attractiveness of NPC1 as an antifiloviral therapeutic target.

Discovery of bacterial fatty acid synthase type II inhibitors using a novel cellular bioluminescent reporter assay.

Novel, cellular, gain-of-signal, bioluminescent reporter assays for fatty acid synthesis type II (FASII) inhibitors were constructed in an efflux-deficient strain of Pseudomonas aeruginosa and based on the discovery that FASII genes in P. aeruginosa are coordinately upregulated in response to pathway disruption. A screen of 115,000 compounds identified a series of sulfonamidobenzamide (SABA) analogs, which generated strong luminescent signals in two FASII reporter strains but not in four control reporter strains designed to respond to inhibitors of pathways other than FASII. The SABA analogs selectively inhibited lipid biosynthesis in P. aeruginosa and exhibited minimal cytotoxicity to mammalian cells (50% cytotoxic concentration [CC50] ≥ 80 µM). The most potent SABA analogs had MICs of 0.5 to 7.0 µM (0.2 to 3.0 µg/ml) against an efflux-deficient Escherichia coli (ΔtolC) strain but had no detectable MIC against efflux-proficient E. coli or against P. aeruginosa (efflux deficient or proficient). Genetic, molecular genetic, and biochemical studies revealed that SABA analogs target the enzyme (AccC) catalyzing the biotin carboxylase half-reaction of the acetyl coenzyme A (acetyl-CoA) carboxylase step in the initiation phase of FASII in E. coli and P. aeruginosa. These results validate the capability and the sensitivity of this novel bioluminescent reporter screen to identify inhibitors of E. coli and P. aeruginosa FASII.

New small molecule entry inhibitors targeting hemagglutinin-mediated influenza a virus fusion.

Influenza viruses are a major public health threat worldwide, and options for antiviral therapy are limited by the emergence of drug-resistant virus strains. The influenza virus glycoprotein hemagglutinin (HA) plays critical roles in the early stage of virus infection, including receptor binding and membrane fusion, making it a potential target for the development of anti-influenza drugs. Using pseudotype virus-based high-throughput screens, we have identified several new small molecules capable of inhibiting influenza virus entry. We prioritized two novel inhibitors, MBX2329 and MBX2546, with aminoalkyl phenol ether and sulfonamide scaffolds, respectively, that specifically inhibit HA-mediated viral entry. The two compounds (i) are potent (50% inhibitory concentration [IC50] of 0.3 to 5.9 µM); (ii) are selective (50% cytotoxicity concentration [CC(50)] of >100 µM), with selectivity index (SI) values of >20 to 200 for different influenza virus strains; (iii) inhibit a wide spectrum of influenza A viruses, which includes the 2009 pandemic influenza virus A/H1N1/2009, highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) virus A/H5N1, and oseltamivir-resistant A/H1N1 strains; (iv) exhibit large volumes of synergy with oseltamivir (36 and 331 µM(2) % at 95% confidence); and (v) have chemically tractable structures. Mechanism-of-action studies suggest that both MBX2329 and MBX2546 bind to HA in a nonoverlapping manner. Additional results from HA-mediated hemolysis of chicken red blood cells (cRBCs), competition assays with monoclonal antibody (MAb) C179, and mutational analysis suggest that the compounds bind in the stem region of the HA trimer and inhibit HA-mediated fusion. Therefore, MBX2329 and MBX2546 represent new starting points for chemical optimization and have the potential to provide valuable future therapeutic options and research tools to study the HA-mediated entry process.

Synthesis and antibacterial evaluation of new, unsymmetrical triaryl bisamidine compounds.

Herein we describe the synthesis and antibacterial evaluation of a new, unsymmetrical triaryl bisamidine compound series, [Am]-[indole]-[linker]-[HetAr/Ar]-[Am], in which [Am] is an amidine or amino group, [linker] is a benzene, thiophene or pyridine ring, and [HetAr/Ar] is a benzimidazole, imidazopyridine, benzofuran, benzothiophene, pyrimidine or benzene ring. When the [HetAr/Ar] unit is a 5,6-bicyclic heterocycle, it is oriented such that the 5-membered ring portion is connected to the [linker] unit and the 6-membered ring portion is connected to the [Am] unit. Among the 34 compounds in this series, compounds with benzofuran as the [HetAr/Ar] unit showed the highest potencies. Introduction of a fluorine atom or a methyl group to the triaryl core led to the more potent analogs. Bisamidines are more active toward bacteria while the monoamidines are more active toward mammalian cells (as indicated by low CC50 values). Importantly, we identified compound P12a (MBX 1887) with a relatively narrow spectrum against bacteria and a very high CC50 value. Compound P12a has been scaled up and is currently undergoing further evaluations for therapeutic applications.

Mutational analysis of quinolone resistance protein QnrB1.

Alanine substitutions and selected deletions have been used to localize amino acids in QnrB essential for its protective activity. Essential amino acids are found at positions i and i(-2) in the pentapeptide repeat module and in the larger of two loops, where deletion of only a single amino acid compromises activity. Deletion of 10 amino acids at the N terminus is tolerated, but removal of 3 amino acids in the C-terminal dimerization unit destroys activity.

Identification of a small-molecule entry inhibitor for filoviruses.

Ebola virus (EBOV) causes severe hemorrhagic fever, for which therapeutic options are not available. Preventing the entry of EBOV into host cells is an attractive antiviral strategy, which has been validated for HIV by the FDA approval of the anti-HIV drug enfuvirtide. To identify inhibitors of EBOV entry, the EBOV envelope glycoprotein (EBOV-GP) gene was used to generate pseudotype viruses for screening of chemical libraries. A benzodiazepine derivative (compound 7) was identified from a high-throughput screen (HTS) of small-molecule compound libraries utilizing the pseudotype virus. Compound 7 was validated as an inhibitor of infectious EBOV and Marburg virus (MARV) in cell-based assays, with 50% inhibitory concentrations (IC(50)s) of 10 µM and 12 µM, respectively. Time-of-addition and binding studies suggested that compound 7 binds to EBOV-GP at an early stage during EBOV infection. Preliminary Schrödinger SiteMap calculations, using a published EBOV-GP crystal structure in its prefusion conformation, suggested a hydrophobic pocket at or near the GP1 and GP2 interface as a suitable site for compound 7 binding. This prediction was supported by mutational analysis implying that residues Asn69, Leu70, Leu184, Ile185, Leu186, Lys190, and Lys191 are critical for the binding of compound 7 and its analogs with EBOV-GP. We hypothesize that compound 7 binds to this hydrophobic pocket and as a consequence inhibits EBOV infection of cells, but the details of the mechanism remain to be determined. In summary, we have identified a novel series of benzodiazepine compounds that are suitable for optimization as potential inhibitors of filoviral infection.

SOS regulation of qnrB expression.

In the sequence upstream from qnrB (but not qnrA or qnrS) is a LexA binding site. qnrB was shown to be under SOS control by demonstrating that quinolone susceptibility decreased with increasing temperature in a strain with a recA441(Ts) allele, whereas qnrB expression increased in response to ciprofloxacin or mitomycin C in strains with an intact lexA gene.

Clinical research and the development of new drugs: issues for nurses.

Critical care nurses are frequently exposed to clinical trials for either new medications, equipment, or procedures. This article discusses the FDA regulatory requirements as well as the guidelines for conducting human research involving investigational new drugs. The role of the critical care nurse caring for patients enrolled in clinical trials is also discussed.

High-throughput screening of viral entry inhibitors using pseudotyped virus.

Virus entry into a host cell is an attractive target for therapy because propagation of virus can be blocked at an early stage, minimizing chances for the virus to acquire drug resistance. Anti-infective drug discovery for BSL-4 viruses like Ebola or Lassa hemorrhagic fever virus presents challenges due to the requirement for a BSL-4 laboratory containment facility. Pseudotyped viruses provide a surrogate model in which the native envelope glycoprotein of a BSL-2 level virus (e.g., vesicular stomatitis virus) is replaced with envelope glycoprotein of a foreign BSL-4 virus (e.g., Ebola virus). Because the envelope glycoprotein determines interaction of virus with its cellular receptors, pseudotyped viruses can mimic the viral entry process of the original virus. Moreover, they are competent for only a single cycle of infection, and therefore can be used in BSL-2 facilities. Pseudotyped viruses have been used in high-throughput screening of entry inhibitors for a number of BSL-4 level viruses. This unit includes protocols for preparing pseudotyped viruses using lentiviral vectors and use of pseudotyped viruses for high-throughput screening of viral entry inhibitors.

qnrB, another plasmid-mediated gene for quinolone resistance.

A novel plasmid-mediated quinolone resistance gene, qnrB, has been discovered in a plasmid encoding the CTX-M-15 beta-lactamase from a Klebsiella pneumoniae strain isolated in South India. It has less than 40% amino acid identity with the original qnr (now qnrA) gene or with the recently described qnrS but, like them, codes for a protein belonging to the pentapeptide repeat family. Strains with qnrB demonstrated low-level resistance to all quinolones tested. The gene has been cloned in an expression vector attaching a polyhistidine tag, which facilitated purification to >or=95% homogeneity. As little as 5 pM of QnrB-His6 protected purified DNA gyrase against inhibition by 2 microg/ml (6 microM) ciprofloxacin. With a PCR assay qnrB has been detected in Citrobacter koseri, Enterobacter cloacae, and Escherichia coli isolates from the United States, linked to SHV-12 beta-lactamase and coding for a product differing in five amino acids from the Indian (now QnrB1) variety. The qnrB gene has been found near Orf1005 in some, but not all, plasmids and in association with open reading frames matching known chromosomal genes, suggesting that it too was acquired by plasmids from an as-yet-unknown bacterial source.

Role of beta-lactamases and porins in resistance to ertapenem and other beta-lactams in Klebsiella pneumoniae.

High-level resistance to ertapenem was produced by beta-lactamases of groups 1, 2f, and 3 in a strain of Klebsiella pneumoniae deficient in Omp35 and Omp36. From a wild-type strain producing ACT-1 beta-lactamase, ertapenem-resistant mutants for which the ertapenem MICs were up to 128 microg/ml and expression of outer membrane proteins was diminished could be selected.

Identification and characterization of inhibitors of bacterial enoyl-acyl carrier protein reductase.

Bacterial enoyl-acyl carrier protein reductase (ENR) catalyzes an essential step in fatty acid biosynthesis. ENR is an attractive target for narrow-spectrum antibacterial drug discovery because of its essential role in metabolism and its sequence conservation across many bacterial species. In addition, the bacterial ENR sequence and structural organization are distinctly different from those of mammalian fatty acid biosynthesis enzymes. High-throughput screening to identify inhibitors of Escherichia coli ENR yielded four structurally distinct classes of hits. Several members of one of these, the 2-(alkylthio)-4,6-diphenylpyridine-3-carbonitriles ("thiopyridines"), inhibited both purified ENR (50% inhibitory concentration [IC(50)] = 3 to 25 micro M) and the growth of Staphylococcus aureus and Bacillus subtilis (MIC = 1 to 64 micro g/ml). The effect on cell growth is due in part to inhibition of fatty acid biosynthesis as judged by inhibition of incorporation of [(14)C]acetate into fatty acids and by the increased sensitivity of cells that underexpress an ENR-encoding gene (four- to eightfold MIC shift). Synthesis of a variety of compounds in this chemical series revealed a correlation between IC(50) and MIC, and the results provided initial structure-activity relationships. Preliminary structure-activity relationships, potency on purified ENR, and activity on bacterial cells indicate that members of the thiopyridine chemical series are effective fatty acid biosynthesis inhibitors suitable for further antibacterial development.