A phase II study of the histone deacetylase inhibitor vorinostat combined with tamoxifen for the treatment of patients with hormone therapy-resistant breast cancer.

BACKGROUND: Histone deacetylases (HDACs) are crucial components of the oestrogen receptor (ER) transcriptional complex. Preclinically, HDAC inhibitors can reverse tamoxifen/aromatase inhibitor resistance in hormone receptor-positive breast cancer. This concept was examined in a phase II combination trial with correlative end points. METHODS: Patients with ER-positive metastatic breast cancer progressing on endocrine therapy were treated with 400 mg of vorinostat daily for 3 of 4 weeks and 20 mg tamoxifen daily, continuously. Histone acetylation and HDAC2 expression in peripheral blood mononuclear cells were also evaluated. RESULTS: In all, 43 patients (median age 56 years (31-71)) were treated, 25 (58%) received prior adjuvant tamoxifen, 29 (67%) failed one prior chemotherapy regimen, 42 (98%) progressed after one, and 23 (54%) after two aromatase inhibitors. The objective response rate by Response Evaluation Criteria in Solid Tumours criteria was 19% and the clinical benefit rate (response or stable disease >24 weeks) was 40%. The median response duration was 10.3 months (confidence interval: 8.1-12.4). Histone hyperacetylation and higher baseline HDAC2 levels correlated with response. CONCLUSION: The combination of vorinostat and tamoxifen is well tolerated and exhibits encouraging activity in reversing hormone resistance. Correlative studies suggest that HDAC2 expression is a predictive marker and histone hyperacetylation is a useful pharmacodynamic marker for the efficacy of this combination.

The oncogene HER2: its signaling and transforming functions and its role in human cancer pathogenesis.

The year 2007 marks exactly two decades since Human Epidermal Growth Factor Receptor-2 (HER2) was functionally implicated in the pathogenesis of human breast cancer. This finding established the HER2 oncogene hypothesis for the development of some human cancers. The subsequent two decades have brought about an explosion of information about the biology of HER2 and the HER family. An abundance of experimental evidence now solidly supports the HER2 oncogene hypothesis and etiologically links amplification of the HER2 gene locus with human cancer pathogenesis. The molecular mechanisms underlying HER2 tumorigenesis appear to be complex and a unified mechanistic model of HER2-induced transformation has not emerged. Numerous hypotheses implicating diverse transforming pathways have been proposed and are individually supported by experimental models and HER2 may indeed induce cell transformation through multiple mechanisms. Here I review the evidence supporting the oncogenic function of HER2, the mechanisms that are felt to mediate its oncogenic functions, and the evidence that links the experimental evidence with human cancer pathogenesis.

Targeting the function of the HER2 oncogene in human cancer therapeutics.

The year 2007 marks exactly two decades since human epidermal growth factor receptor-2 (HER2) was functionally implicated in the pathogenesis of human breast cancer (Slamon et al., 1987). This finding established the HER2 oncogene hypothesis for the development of some human cancers. An abundance of experimental evidence compiled over the past two decades now solidly supports the HER2 oncogene hypothesis. A direct consequence of this hypothesis was the promise that inhibitors of oncogenic HER2 would be highly effective treatments for HER2-driven cancers. This treatment hypothesis has led to the development and widespread use of anti-HER2 antibodies (trastuzumab) in clinical management resulting in significantly improved clinical antitumor efficacies that have transformed the clinical practice of oncology. In the shadows of this irrefutable clinical success, scientific studies have not yet been able to mechanistically validate that trastuzumab inhibits oncogenic HER2 function and it remains possible that the current clinical advances are a consequence of the oncogene hypothesis, but not a translation of it. These looming scientific uncertainties suggest that the full promise of the treatment hypothesis may not yet have been realized. The coming decade will see a second generation of HER2-targeting agents brought into clinical testing and a renewed attempt to treat HER2-driven cancers through the inactivation of HER2. Here, I review the development of treatments that target HER2 in the context of the HER2 oncogene hypothesis, and where we stand with regards to the clinical translation of the HER2 oncogene hypothesis.

The tyrosine kinase inhibitor ZD1839 ("Iressa") inhibits HER2-driven signaling and suppresses the growth of HER2-overexpressing tumor cells.

The epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) is commonly overexpressed in many human tumors and provides a new target for anticancer drug development. ZD1839 ("Iressa"), a quinazoline tyrosine kinase inhibitor selective for the EGFR, has shown good activity in preclinical studies and in the early phase of clinical trials. However, because it remains unclear which tumor types are the best targets for treatment with this agent, the molecular characteristics that correlate with tumor sensitivity to ZD1839 have been studied. In a panel of human breast cancer and other epithelial tumor cell lines, HER2-overexpressing tumors were particularly sensitive to ZD1839. Growth inhibition of these tumor cell lines was associated with the dephosphorylation of EGFR, HER2, and HER3, accompanied by the loss of association of HER3 with phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase, and down-regulation of Akt activity. These studies suggest that HER2-overexpressing tumors are particularly susceptible to the inhibition of HER family tyrosine kinase signaling and suggest novel strategies to treat these particularly aggressive tumors.

Inhibition of heat shock protein 90 function by ansamycins causes the morphological and functional differentiation of breast cancer cells.

17-(Allylamino)-17-demethoxygeldanamycin (17-AAG) is an ansamycin antibiotic that binds to a conserved pocket in Hsp90 and induces the degradation of proteins that require this chaperone for conformational maturation. 17-AAG causes a retinoblastoma (RB)-dependent G1 block in cancer cells and is now in clinical trial. In breast cancer cells, G1 block is accompanied by differentiation and followed by apoptosis. The differentiation is characterized by specific changes in morphology and induction of milk fat proteins and lipid droplets. In cells lacking RB, neither G1 arrest nor differentiation occurs; instead, they undergo apoptosis in mitosis. Introduction of RB into these cells restores the differentiation response to 17-AAG. Inhibitors of the ras, mitogen-activated protein kinase, and phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase pathways cause accumulation of milk fat proteins and induction of lipid droplets when associated with G1 arrest but do not cause morphological changes. Thus, regulation of Hsp90 function by 17-AAG in breast cancer cells induces RB-dependent morphological and functional mammary differentiation. G1 arrest is sufficient for some but not all aspects of the phenotype. Induction of differentiation may be responsible for some of the antitumor effects of this drug.

Inhibition of Src kinases by a selective tyrosine kinase inhibitor causes mitotic arrest.

src kinase activity is elevated in some human tumors, including breast and colon cancers. The precise cellular function of the src family kinases is not clearly understood, but they appear to be involved in numerous signaling pathways. We studied the effects of PD173955, a novel src family-selective tyrosine kinase inhibitor, on cancer cell lines and found that it has significant antiproliferative activity due to a potent arrest of mitotic progression. The mitotic block occurs after chromosome condensation in prophase, before spindle assembly and without loss of cyclin A and B kinase activities. This effect is seen in cancer cell lines of all types with low or high activities of src kinases as well as in untransformed cell lines. In MDA-MB-468 breast cancer cells, this drug produces a rapid inhibition of cellular src and yes kinase activities as well as suppression of the mitotic hyperactivity of these kinases. This compound defines a novel class of antimitotic drugs that work through inhibition of src kinases and possibly other protein kinases that are required for progression through the initial phases of mitosis.

Response and resistance to retinoic acid are mediated through the retinoic acid nuclear receptor gamma in human teratocarcinomas.

All-trans-retinoic acid (RA) treatment of the multipotent human teratocarcinoma (TC) cell line NTERA-2 clone D1 (abbreviated NT2/D1) induces a neuronal phenotype. Compared to untreated NT2/D1 cells, RA treated cells have reduced proliferative potential. To identify which retinoic acid receptor (RAR) is directly linked to RA response in these cells, nine RA resistant subclones were derived and characterized. Unlike parental NT2/D1 cells, all these subclones and a de novo RA resistant human TC cell line, N2102Ep clone 2AG (abbreviated N2102ep), exhibited reduced RAR gamma expression. The RAR gamma gene was studied within NT2/D1 cells and a representative RA resistant NT2/D1 subclone called NT2/D1-R1 by Southern analysis and by the transcriptional properties of cloned RAR gamma cDNAs. No structural or functional differences between these RAR gamma species were found suggesting that RA resistance is due to reduced levels of RAR gamma expressed in NT2/D1-R1 cells. To explore this possibility an RAR gamma cDNA was stably transfected into NT2/D1-R1 cells. Expression of this cDNA partially restored the response to RA in NT2/D1-R1 cells. The role of RAR gamma in parental NT2/D1 cells was studied in transient transfection assays using an FGF4 promoter-enhancer reporter construct that is transcriptionally active in undifferentiated but not in differentiated TC cells. The dose dependent co-transfection of an expressed RAR gamma cDNA with this reporter more efficiently repressed its transcriptional activity in the presence of RA than transfection of the reporter without expressed RAR gamma. Co-transfection also decreased reporter activity in the absence of exogenously added ligand. Together, these findings reveal that RAR gamma expression is tightly coupled to RA response and resistance in human TC cells. These data implicate an important role for RAR gamma in the RA-mediated differentiation of these TCs.

Overexpression of the retinoic acid receptor gamma directly induces terminal differentiation of human embryonal carcinoma cells.

All-trans retinoic acid (RA) exerts profound effects on the growth and differentiation of normal, embryonic, and malignant cells. The effects of RA are mediated through multiple members of the retinoic acid receptor (RAR) and retinoid X receptor (RXR) families of nuclear transcription factors. The RARs and RXRs exhibit specific patterns of expression during development and in adult tissues suggesting tissue or cell-type specific functions. Using NTera2/clone D1 (NT2/D1) human embryonal carcinoma cells as a model, we report that the RA induced terminal differentiation of these cells into a neuronal phenotype is characterized by an increase in expression of RAR alpha, RAR beta, RAR gamma, and a slight induction of RXR alpha. To study the role of these receptors in the differentiation process we individually overexpressed RAR alpha, beta, gamma and RXR alpha in NT2/D1 cells by cDNA transfection. Using induced cDNA expression by episomal vector amplification we show that RAR gamma over-expression causes the terminal mesenchymal differentiation of these cells while over-expression of RAR alpha, beta and RXR alpha has no observed maturation or growth inhibitory effects. Over-expression of these receptors in the derived RA resistant subclone NT2/D1-R1 showed phenotypic changes characteristic of RA response in RAR gamma transfectants. These studies indicate that of the retinoid receptors expressed in RA-treated NT2/D1 cells, it is the upregulation of RAR gamma that specifically induces the terminal differentiation of these cells.

Growth suppression of acute promyelocytic leukemia cells having increased expression of the non-rearranged alleles: RAR alpha or PML.

The balanced t(15;17) rearrangement found in acute promyelocytic leukemia (APL) cells fuses PML on chromosome 15 to the retinoic acid receptor alpha (RAR alpha) on chromosome 17. PML/RAR alpha is expressed in APL cells with the non-rearranged alleles, PML and RAR alpha. Clinical remissions induced by all-trans-retinoic acid (RA) treatment of APL patients are linked to expression of PML/RAR apha, a transcription factor with reported dominant negative functions. The roles of PML and RAR alpha in the RA response of APL have not yet been fully explored. This study examines these roles by individually transfecting RAR alpha and PML into NB4 APL cells. NB4 is the sole APL cell line containing the t(15;17). RA treatment represses NB4 cell growth and induces a myeloid phentoype. Full length cDNAs for RAR alpha and PML were individually cloned into a CMV-driven expression vector containing the neomycin resistance gene. Surprisingly, none of the obtained stable transfectants expressed exogenous RAR alpha or PML mRNAs even when reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) detection assays were used. All clones expressed the neomycin resistance gene and were similar to parental NB4 cells in their growth and differentiation properties. An explanation explored for this lack of gene expression was that increased levels of RAR alpha or PML might suppress APL cell growth. To examine this possibility, transfection experiments were repeated using an episomal vector-based expression system containing an SV40 driven RAR alpha or PML cDNA and the hygromycin B resistance gene. A new selection strategy augmented expression of the desired cDNAs. A control episomal vector lacked a cDNA insert. Following electroporation and selection, exogenous RAR alpha expression was obtained. Compared to controls, the growth of these transfectants was markedly inhibited before and after RA-treatment and these cells more prominently induced myeloid maturation markers. In contrast, exogenous PML expression was transient since these transfectants did not appear to propagate in culture. These findings indicate: (1) a growth disadvantage for NB4 cells having increased expression of RAR alpha or PML and (2) increased RAR alpha expression augmented RA-mediated maturation of NB4 cells. This implicates a role for RAR alpha or PML in regulating the growth or differentiation of APL cells. It is hypothesized this occurs through antagonism of PML/RAR alpha actions in these leukemic cells.

Growth suppression of transformed human bronchial epithelial cells by all-trans-retinoic acid occurs through specific retinoid receptors.

The retinoids are reported to chemoprevent second aerodigestive tract cancers in patients with prior lung or head and neck cancers. Since those retinoids already examined in clinical trials do not induce major clinical responses in lung cancers, it is hypothesized that the beneficial chemoprevention activity in lung neoplasias occurs within 'fields' of carcinogen-transformed epithelial cells. To begin to investigate this retinoid action during lung carcinogenesis, the BZR-T33 ras transformed human bronchial epithelial cell line that grows in an anchorage independent manner was examined. This study reports, as compared to controls, that all-trans-retinoic acid (RA)-treatment suppresses BZR-T33 proliferation in monolayer cultures and in anchorage independent and cloning efficiency growth assays. RA induces RAR-gamma 2 > RAR gamma 1 in BZR-T33 cells but expression at the total cellular RNA level of RAR alpha and RXR alpha is not augmented by RA-treatment. RAR beta mRNA expression is repressed before and after RA-treatment and is only detected using a reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) assay. To determine directly which of these expressed retinoid receptors signals growth suppression, each receptor was individually transfected into BZR-T33 cells using episomal vector in colony efficiency assays. RAR gamma over-expression in the presence or absence of RA-treatment did not suppress BZR-T33 growth more than controls. In contrast, over-expression of the other examined retinoid receptors inhibited BZR-T33 cellular cloning efficiency prior to RA-treatment and in this decreasing order after RA-treatment: RAR alpha > RAR beta > RXR alpha. The findings reported here reveal that RA suppresses proliferation and cloning efficiency in this transformed human bronchial epithelial cell through specific retinoid receptors. Further work is needed to evaluate the role of RA or its nuclear receptors in inhibiting even earlier steps in lung carcinogenesis.

Weekly trastuzumab and paclitaxel therapy for metastatic breast cancer with analysis of efficacy by HER2 immunophenotype and gene amplification.

PURPOSE: This phase II study evaluated weekly trastuzumab and paclitaxel therapy in women with HER2-normal and HER2-overexpressing metastatic breast cancer. Efficacy was correlated with immunohistochemical and fluorescent in situ hybridization (FISH) assay results. PATIENTS AND METHODS: Eligible patients had bidimensionally measurable metastatic breast cancer. Up to three prior chemotherapy regimens, including prior anthracycline and taxane therapy, were allowed. Trastuzumab 4 mg/kg and paclitaxel 90 mg/m2 were administered on week 1, with trastuzumab 2 mg/kg and paclitaxel 90 mg/m2 administered on subsequent weeks. HER2 status was evaluated using four different immunohistochemical assays and FISH. RESULTS: Patients received a median of 25 weekly infusions (range, one to 85 infusions). Median delivered paclitaxel dose-intensity was 82 mg/m2/wk (range, 52 to 90 mg/m2/wk). The intent-to-treat response rate for all 95 patients enrolled was 56.8% (95% confidence interval, 47% to 67%). A response rate of 61.4% (4.5% complete response, 56.8% partial response) was observed in 88 fully assessable patients. In patients with HER2-overexpressing tumors, overall response rates ranged from 67% to 81% compared with 41% to 46% in patients with HER2-normal expression (ranges reflect the different assay methods used to assess HER2 status). Differences in response rates between patients with HER2-overexpressing tumors and those with normal HER2 expression were statistically significant for all assay methods, with CB11 and TAB250 antibodies and FISH having the strongest significance. Therapy was generally well tolerated, although three patients had serious cardiac complications. CONCLUSION: Weekly trastuzumab and paclitaxel therapy is active in women with metastatic breast cancer. Therapy was relatively well tolerated; however, attention to cardiac function is necessary.

Doxorubicin followed by sequential paclitaxel and cyclophosphamide versus concurrent paclitaxel and cyclophosphamide: 5-year results of a phase II randomized trial of adjuvant dose-dense chemotherapy for women with node-positive breast carcinoma.

PURPOSE: We conducted a randomized Phase II trial to directly compare toxicity, feasibility, and delivered dose intensities of two adjuvant dose-intensive regimens containing doxorubicin, paclitaxel, and cyclophosphamide for patients with node-positive breast carcinoma. EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN: Forty-two patients with resected breast carcinoma involving one or more ipsilateral axillary lymph nodes, were randomized to receive two different schedules of adjuvant chemotherapy using 14-day dosing intervals: either (a) three cycles of doxorubicin 80 mg/m(2) as i.v. bolus followed sequentially by three cycles of paclitaxel 200 mg/m(2) as a 24-h infusion and then by three cycles of cyclophosphamide 3.0 g/m(2) as a 1-h infusion (arm A); or (b) the same schedule of doxorubicin followed by three cycles of concurrent cyclophosphamide and paclitaxel at the same doses (arm B). All cycles were supported by granulocyte colony-stimulating factor administration. RESULTS: Forty-one patients were assessable for toxicity and feasibility; 37 (90%) completed all planned chemotherapy. There was no treatment-related mortality; however, increased toxicity was observed on arm B compared with arm A, manifested by an increase in hospitalization for toxicity, mainly neutropenic fever, and an increased incidence of transfusion of packed RBCs transfusions for anemia. The mean delivered dose intensities for paclitaxel and cyclophosphamide were significantly greater for arm A compared with arm B (P =.01 and P =.05, respectively). There is no long-term, treatment-related toxicity, and no cases of acute myelogenous leukemia or myelodysplastic syndrome have been observed. CONCLUSIONS: Dose-dense sequential single-agent chemotherapy is more feasible than doxorubicin with subsequent concurrent paclitaxel and cyclophosphamide.

Targeting HER3 by interfering with its Sec61-mediated cotranslational insertion into the endoplasmic reticulum.

There is increasing evidence implicating human epidermal growth factor receptor 3 (HER3) in several types of cancer. However, the development of targeted therapies to inactivate HER3 function has been a challenging endeavor. Its kinase domain functions in allostery not catalysis, and the classical ATP-analog class of tyrosine kinase inhibitors fail to inactivate it. Here we describe a novel approach that eliminates HER3 expression. The small-molecule cotransin CT8 binds the Sec61 translocon and prevents the signal peptide of the nascent HER3 protein from initiating its cotranslational translocation, resulting in the degradation of HER3 but not the other HER proteins. CT8 treatment suppresses the induction of HER3 that accompanies lapatinib treatment of HER2-amplified cancers and synergistically enhances the apoptotic effects of lapatinib. The target selectivities of cotransins are highly dependent on their structure and the signal sequence of targeted proteins and can be narrowed through structure-function studies. Targeting Sec61-dependent processing identifies a novel strategy to eliminate HER3 function.

A tumor-suppressing function in the epithelial adhesion protein Trask.

Trask/CDCP1 is a transmembrane glycoprotein widely expressed in epithelial tissues whose functions are just beginning to be understood, but include a role as an anti-adhesive effector of Src kinases. Early studies looking at RNA transcript levels seemed to suggest overexpression in some cancers, but immunostaining studies are now providing more accurate analyses of its expression. In an immuno-histochemical survey of human cancer specimens, we find that Trask expression is retained, reduced or sometimes lost in some tumors compared with their normal epithelial tissue counterparts. A survey of human cancer cell lines also show a similar wide variation in the expression of Trask, including some cell types with the loss of Trask expression, and additional cell types that have lost the physiological detachment-induced phosphorylation of Trask. Three experimental models were established to interrogate the role of Trask in tumor progression, including two gain-of-function models with tet-inducible expression of Trask in tumor cells lacking Trask expression, and one loss-of-function model to suppress Trask expression in tumor cells with abundant Trask expression. The induction of Trask expression and phosphorylation in MCF-7 cells and in 3T3v-src cells was associated with a reduction in tumor metastases while the shRNA-induced knockdown of Trask in L3.6pl cancer cells was associated with increased tumor metastases. The results from these three models are consistent with a tumor-suppressing role for Trask. These data identify Trask as one of several potential candidates for functionally relevant tumor suppressors on the 3p21.3 region of the genome frequently lost in human cancers.

MRI methods for evaluating the effects of tyrosine kinase inhibitor administration used to enhance chemotherapy efficiency in a breast tumor xenograft model.

PURPOSE: To evaluate whether quantitative MRI parameters are sensitive to the effects of the tyrosine kinase inhibitor gefitinib and can discriminate between two different treatment protocols. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Untreated mice with BT474 breast tumor xenografts were characterized in a preliminary study. Subsequently, tumor volume, apparent diffusion coefficient (ADC), transendothelial permeability (K(ps)), and fractional plasma volume (fPV) were measured in three groups of mice receiving: 1) control vehicle for 10 days, or gefitinib as 2) a single daily dose for 10 days or 3) a 2-day pulsed dose. RESULTS: Gefitinib treatment resulted in significant tumor growth inhibition (pulsed: 439 +/- 93; daily: 404 +/- 53; control: 891 +/- 174 mm(3), P < 0.050) and lower cell density (pulsed: 0.15 +/- 0.01, daily: 0.17 +/- 0.01, control: 0.24 +/- 0.01, P < 0.050) after 9 days. Tumor ADC increased in treated groups but decreased in controls (P > 0.050). Tumor K(ps) decreased with pulsed treatment but rebounded afterwards and increased with daily treatment (P > 0.050). Tumor fPV increased in both treated groups, decreasing afterwards with pulsed treatment (P > 0.050). CONCLUSION: Quantitative MRI can provide a sensitive measure of gefitinib-induced tumor changes, potentially distinguish between treatment regimens, and may be useful for determining optimal treatment scheduling for enhancing chemotherapy delivery.

The epidermal growth factor receptor family: biology driving targeted therapeutics.

The epidermal growth factor family of receptor tyrosine kinases (ErbBs) plays essential roles in regulating cell proliferation, survival, differentiation and migration. The ErbB receptors carry out both redundant and restricted functions in mammalian development and in the maintenance of tissues in the adult mammal. Loss of regulation of the ErbB receptors underlies many human diseases, most notably cancer. Our understanding of the function and complex regulation of these receptors has fueled the development of targeted therapeutic agents for human malignancies in the last 15 years. Here we review the biology of ErbB receptors, including their structure, signaling, regulation, and roles in development and disease, then briefly touch on their increasing roles as targets for cancer therapy.

Pharmacokinetics and tolerability of exemestane in combination with raloxifene in postmenopausal women with a history of breast cancer.

PURPOSE: Raloxifene is a second-generation selective estrogen receptor modulator that reduces the incidence of breast cancer in postmenopausal women. Exemestane, a steroidal aromatase inhibitor, decreases contralateral new breast cancers in postmenopausal women when taken in the adjuvant setting. Preclinical evidence suggests a rationale for coadministration of these agents to achieve complete estrogen blockade. EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN: We tested the safety and tolerability of combination exemestane and raloxifene in 11 postmenopausal women with a history of hormone receptor-negative breast cancer. Patients were randomized to either raloxifene (60 mg PO daily) or exemestane (25 mg PO daily) for 2 weeks. Patients then initiated combination therapy at the same dose levels for a minimum of 1 year. Pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic data for plasma estrogens, raloxifene, exemestane, and their metabolites were collected at the end of single-agent therapy and during combination therapy. RESULTS: Plasma concentration-time profiles for each drug were unchanged with monotherapy versus combination therapy. Raloxifene did not affect plasma estrogen levels. Plasma estrogen concentrations were suppressed below the lower limit of detection by exemestane as monotherapy and when administered in combination with raloxifene. The most common adverse events of any grade included arthralgias, hot flashes, vaginal dryness and myalgias. CONCLUSIONS: In this small study, coadministration of raloxifene and exemestane did not affect the pharmacokinetics or pharmacodynamics of either agent to a significant degree in postmenopausal women. The combination of estrogen receptor blockade and suppression of estrogen synthesis is well tolerated and warrants further investigation.

Targeting HER proteins in cancer therapy and the role of the non-target HER3.

Members of the human epidermal growth factor receptor (HER) family have been of considerable interest in the cancer arena due to their potential to induce tumorigenesis when their signalling functions are deregulated. The constitutive activation of these proteins is seen in a number of different common cancer subtypes, and in particular EGFR and HER2 have become highly pursued targets for anti-cancer drug development. Clinical studies in a number of different cancers known to be driven by EGFR or HER2 show mixed results, and further mechanistic understanding of drug sensitivity and resistance is needed to realise the full potential of this treatment modality. Signalling in trans is a key feature of HER family signalling, and the activation of the PI3K/Akt pathway, so critically important in tumorigenesis, is driven predominantly through phosphorylation in trans of the kinase inactive member HER3. An increasing body of evidence shows that HER3 plays a critical role in EGFR- and HER2-driven tumours. In particular, HER3 lies upstream of a critically important tumorigenic signalling pathway with extensive ability for feedback and cross-talk signalling, and targeting approaches that fail to account for this important trans-target of EGFR and HER2 can be undermined by its resiliency and resourcefulness. Since HER3 is kinase inactive, it is not a direct target of kinase inhibitors and not presently an easily drugable target. This review presents the current evidence highlighting the role of HER3 in tumorigenesis and its role in mediating resistance to inhibitors of EGFR and HER2.

The use of molecular markers in farnesyltransferase inhibitor (FTI) therapy of breast cancer.

The hypothesis that pharmacologic inhibitors of Ras can be effective anti-cancer agents has led to the development of Farnesyltransferase inhibitors (FTIs). These agents inhibit the requisite processing of a number of cellular proteins including Ras. FTIs have shown good anti-tumor efficacy and little toxicity in preclinical models and based on these results, numerous clinical trials are currently underway to evaluate the clinical potential of these agents in patients with cancer. However, contrary to the ideas that led to their design, mechanistic studies have not confirmed that they inhibit tumors through the inhibition of Ras. FTIs inhibit the growth of a broad variety of human tumor cells in vitro and studies to date have not identified cellular characteristics that predict the antitumor efficacy of this class of agents. We have studied a panel of breast cancer cell lines that differ widely in their sensitivity to FTI in order to determine which molecular characteristics may determine sensitivity to this class of agents. In these cells we find that FTI sensitivity does not correlate with the relative expression of Ras isoforms or the inhibition of Ras processing, growth factor signaling, expression of estrogen receptor or the overexpression of growth factor receptors. Looking for other molecular correlates of FTI sensitivity we have compared the activity of farnesylprotein transferase (FPTase) among these cells and although we find no overall correlation with FTI sensitivity, we find that two cell lines with unusually low FPTase activity are sensitive. Comparing p53 genotype with FTI-sensitivity we find that although most cell lines in our panel have mutant p53, all three cell lines with wild-type p53 are quite sensitive to FTI. In fact, MCF-7 cells which have both wild-type p53 and the lowest FPTase activity are the most FTI-sensitive cell type we have ever seen. Although these studies do not identify any single molecular marker that can accurately predict FTI sensitivity in breast tumors, they highlight the potential roles of FPTase activity and p53 function for further analysis.

Derivation and characterization of retinoid-resistant human embryonal carcinoma cells.

The retinoids exert potent growth and differentiation effects on normal and neoplastic cells through two families of nuclear receptors. These are the retinoic acid receptors (RAR alpha, RAR beta, RAR gamma) and the retinoid-X receptors (RXR alpha, RXR beta, RXR gamma). All-trans retinoic acid (RA) induces terminal neuronal differentiation and represses tumorigenicity of the multipotent human embryonal carcinoma cell line NTERA-2 clone D1 (NT2/D1). Hexamethylene bisacetamide (HMBA) induces a phenotype distinct from RA-treated NT2/D1 cells. This study reports the derivation and characterization of RA- and HMBA-resistant NT2/D1 clones. Nine RA-resistant (NT2/D1-R1 through NT2/D1-R9) and one HMBA-resistant (NT2/D1-H1) clones were derived after mutagen treatment of NT2/D1 cells and selection in RA or HMBA. NT2/D1-R cells were cross-resistant to 9-cis retinoic acid (9-cis RA), a ligand activating the RAR and RXR pathways, but retained maturation response to HMBA. A representative RA-resistant clone, NT2/D1-R1, overcame the antitumorigenic actions of RA as assessed in athymic mice. NT2/D1-H1 cells were dually resistant to RA and 9-cis RA. All these retinoid resistant cells exhibit deregulated expression of RAR gamma but not RAR alpha or RAR beta. Southern analysis using RAR gamma probes shows no apparent structural differences in genomic DNA between NT2/D1 cells and the RA-resistant subclones. Pulsed-field gel electrophoresis (PFGE) with RAR gamma probes demonstrated an Mlu-I restriction fragment length polymorphism, but no other structural abnormalities in these cells or a panel of germ cell tumor (GCT) cell lines. Full-length RAR gamma 1 coding region cDNAs were cloned from NT2/D1 and NT2/D1-R1 cells and these sequences were identical, suggesting RA resistance in these cells is due to altered regulation of RAR gamma. These differentiation-resistant cells are useful to study RAR gamma target genes or mechanisms engaged by these differentiation inducing agents in human embryonal carcinomas.