Profiles of sugar fermenting bacteria of the oral cavity among children with dental caries attending stomatology services at Ruhengeri referral hospital in Musanze District, Northern Rwanda.

Background: Dental caries remains a public health threat of concern among children. About 2.3 billion people are affected by dental caries, of which 530 million are children globally. Objective: This study was carried out to identify sugar fermenting bacteria in the oral cavity and their antibiotic susceptibility pattern, assess the association with sugar fermenter bacteria and dental caries and evaluate dental caries outcomes among children. Materials and Methods: This was a cross-sectional study conducted between October 2021 and February 2022 at Ruhengeri Referral Hospital. About 136 oral swab samples were collected from children with and without dental caries at 1:1 ratio. The samples were put in Stuart sterile container and transported to INES-clinical microbiology laboratory for microbial identification. Logistic regression analysis of demographic characteristics was performed to study the relationship between demographic variables and dental caries. Chi-square test was performed for the association between variables. Results: About 67.6% were male, while children of age 7-9 years (64.7%) dominated the age groups. Lactobacilli spp (15.29%) and Streptococcus mutans (12.94%) were the most predominant microorganisms observed in the oral cavity among children with dental caries. The S. mutans (x2 = 27.03, P < 0.00001, 95% confidence interval [CI]=0.2901-0.5785), S. aureus (x2 = 34.59, P < 0.00001, 95% CI = 0.3541-0.6292), Enterobacter aerogenes (x2 = 13.5, P = 0.000239, 95% CI = 0.151-0.4622), Serratia marcescens (x2 = 11.64, P = 0.00645, 95% CI = 0.1275-0.4418) and Klebsiella pneumonia (x2 = 13.51, P = 0.000237, 95% CI = 0.1511-0.4623) were significantly associated with dental caries. Teeth loss (x2 = 51.04, P < 0.00001, 95% CI = 0.4757-0.7205), teeth pain (x2 = 5.05, P = 0.0246, 95% CI = 0.0249-0.33499), and infection (x2 = 4.73, P = 0.02964, 95% CI = 0.0186-0.3441) were dental outcomes associated with tooth decay. Ciprofloxacin, clindamycin, and amoxicillin were the most sensitive antibiotics, while vancomycin and chloramphenicol were the most resistant. Conclusion: Sugar consumption favours the growth of sugar fermenter bacteria that cause dental caries among children. Dental caries is associated with adverse oral health outcomes among children. Oral health education is recommended for children. Parents are advised to reduce the consumption of sugary food for their children for oral health safety.

Cardiac Surgery: Increasing Access in Low- and Middle-Income Countries.

PURPOSE OF THE REVIEW: Low- and middle-income countries (LMICs) have long-battled communicable diseases, and now, a rise in non-communicable diseases (NCD) is conferring tremendous burden in these areas. Cardiovascular disease (CVD) remains the number one cause of death among NCDs across the globe. The current review provides insight regarding this disease burden and highlights challenges as well as strategies for establishing functional cardiac surgery centers and sustainable access to comprehensive cardiovascular care within LMICs. RECENT FINDINGS: Without effective prevention and treatment strategies, estimates suggest that deaths from CVDs will reach 24 million by the year 2030. Surgery exists as a limited option for selected patients with advanced cardiac disease in LMICs in comparison with its availability in developed countries. Multi-lateral or public-private initiatives, government investment, philanthropic efforts, innovative financing systems to strengthen Universal Health Coverage, and expansion of training options through centers of excellence appear to be the way forward to broadening the availability of cardiovascular services, inclusive of surgery, to LMICs.

Understanding the Etiology of Heart Failure Among the Rural Poor in Sub-Saharan Africa: A 10-Year Experience From District Hospitals in Rwanda.

BACKGROUND: Heart failure is a significant cause of morbidity and mortality in sub-Saharan Africa. Our understanding of the heart failure burden in this region has been limited mainly to registries from urban referral centers. Starting in 2006, a nurse-driven strategy was initiated to provide echocardiography and decentralized heart failure care within noncommunicable disease (NCD) clinics in rural district hospitals in Rwanda. METHODS AND RESULTS: We conducted a retrospective review of patients with cardiologist-confirmed heart failure treated at 3 district hospital NCD clinics in Rwanda from 2006 to 2017 to determine patient clinical characteristics and disease distribution. Over 10 years, 719 patients with confirmed heart failure were identified. Median age was 27 years overall, and 42 years in adults. Thirty-six percent were children (age <18 years), 68% were female, and 78% of adults were farmers. At entry, 39% were in New York Heart Association functional class III-IV. Among children, congenital heart disease (52%) and rheumatic heart disease (36%) were most common. In adults, cardiomyopathy (40%), rheumatic heart disease (27%), and hypertensive heart disease (13%) were most common. No patients were diagnosed with ischemic cardiomyopathy. CONCLUSIONS: The results of the largest single-country heart failure cohort from rural sub-Saharan Africa demonstrate a persistent burden of rheumatic disease and nonischemic cardiomyopathies.

Clinical Outcomes in 3343 Children and Adults With Rheumatic Heart Disease From 14 Low- and Middle-Income Countries: Two-Year Follow-Up of the Global Rheumatic Heart Disease Registry (the REMEDY Study).

BACKGROUND: There are few contemporary data on the mortality and morbidity associated with rheumatic heart disease or information on their predictors. We report the 2-year follow-up of individuals with rheumatic heart disease from 14 low- and middle-income countries in Africa and Asia. METHODS: Between January 2010 and November 2012, we enrolled 3343 patients from 25 centers in 14 countries and followed them for 2 years to assess mortality, congestive heart failure, stroke or transient ischemic attack, recurrent acute rheumatic fever, and infective endocarditis. RESULTS: Vital status at 24 months was known for 2960 (88.5%) patients. Two-thirds were female. Although patients were young (median age, 28 years; interquartile range, 18-40), the 2-year case fatality rate was high (500 deaths, 16.9%). Mortality rate was 116.3/1000 patient-years in the first year and 65.4/1000 patient-years in the second year. Median age at death was 28.7 years. Independent predictors of death were severe valve disease (hazard ratio [HR], 2.36; 95% confidence interval [CI], 1.80-3.11), congestive heart failure (HR, 2.16; 95% CI, 1.70-2.72), New York Heart Association functional class III/IV (HR, 1.67; 95% CI, 1.32-2.10), atrial fibrillation (HR, 1.40; 95% CI, 1.10-1.78), and older age (HR, 1.02; 95% CI, 1.01-1.02 per year increase) at enrollment. Postprimary education (HR, 0.67; 95% CI, 0.54-0.85) and female sex (HR, 0.65; 95% CI, 0.52-0.80) were associated with lower risk of death. Two hundred and four (6.9%) patients had new congestive heart failure (incidence, 38.42/1000 patient-years), 46 (1.6%) had a stroke or transient ischemic attack (8.45/1000 patient-years), 19 (0.6%) had recurrent acute rheumatic fever (3.49/1000 patient-years), and 20 (0.7%) had infective endocarditis (3.65/1000 patient-years). Previous stroke and older age were independent predictors of stroke/transient ischemic attack or systemic embolism. Patients from low- and lower-middle-income countries had significantly higher age- and sex-adjusted mortality than patients from upper-middle-income countries. Valve surgery was significantly more common in upper-middle-income than in lower-middle- or low-income countries. CONCLUSIONS: Patients with clinical rheumatic heart disease have high mortality and morbidity despite being young; those from low- and lower-middle-income countries had a poorer prognosis associated with advanced disease and low education. Programs focused on early detection and the treatment of clinical rheumatic heart disease are required to improve outcomes.

Characteristics, complications, and gaps in evidence-based interventions in rheumatic heart disease: the Global Rheumatic Heart Disease Registry (the REMEDY study).

AIMS: Rheumatic heart disease (RHD) accounts for over a million premature deaths annually; however, there is little contemporary information on presentation, complications, and treatment. METHODS AND RESULTS: This prospective registry enrolled 3343 patients (median age 28 years, 66.2% female) presenting with RHD at 25 hospitals in 12 African countries, India, and Yemen between January 2010 and November 2012. The majority (63.9%) had moderate-to-severe multivalvular disease complicated by congestive heart failure (33.4%), pulmonary hypertension (28.8%), atrial fibrillation (AF) (21.8%), stroke (7.1%), infective endocarditis (4%), and major bleeding (2.7%). One-quarter of adults and 5.3% of children had decreased left ventricular (LV) systolic function; 23% of adults and 14.1% of children had dilated LVs. Fifty-five percent (n = 1761) of patients were on secondary antibiotic prophylaxis. Oral anti-coagulants were prescribed in 69.5% (n = 946) of patients with mechanical valves (n = 501), AF (n = 397), and high-risk mitral stenosis in sinus rhythm (n = 48). However, only 28.3% (n = 269) had a therapeutic international normalized ratio. Among 1825 women of childbearing age (12-51 years), only 3.6% (n = 65) were on contraception. The utilization of valvuloplasty and valve surgery was higher in upper-middle compared with lower-income countries. CONCLUSION: Rheumatic heart disease patients were young, predominantly female, and had high prevalence of major cardiovascular complications. There is suboptimal utilization of secondary antibiotic prophylaxis, oral anti-coagulation, and contraception, and variations in the use of percutaneous and surgical interventions by country income level.

Partnership for sustainability in cardiac surgery to address critical rheumatic heart disease in sub-Saharan Africa: the experience from Rwanda.

IMPORTANCE: Rheumatic heart disease (RHD) in the developing world results in critical disability among children, adolescents, and young adults-marginalizing a key population at its peak age of productivity. Few regions in sub-Saharan Africa have independently created an effective strategy to detect and treat streptococcal infection and mitigate its progression to RHD. OBJECTIVE: We describe a unique collaboration, where the Rwanda Ministry of Health, the Rwanda Heart Foundation, and an expatriate humanitarian cardiac surgery program have together leveraged an innovative partnership as a means to expand Rwanda's current capacity to address screening and primary prevention, as well as provide life-saving cardiac surgery for patients with critical RHD. EVIDENCE REVIEW: Interviews with key personnel and review of administrative records were conducted to obtain qualitative and quantitative data on the recruitment of clinical personnel, procurement of equipment, and program finances. The number of surgical cases completed and the resultant clinical outcomes are reviewed. FINDINGS: From 2008 to 2013, six annual visits were completed. A total of 128 prosthetic valves have been implanted in 86 complex patients in New York Heart Association (NYHA) class III or IV heart failure, with excellent clinical outcomes (5 % 30-day mortality). Postoperative complications included a cerebrovascular accident (n = 1) and hemorrhage, requiring reoperation (n = 2). All procedures were performed with participation of local personnel. CONCLUSIONS AND RELEVANCE: This strategy provides a reliable and consistent model of sophisticated specialty care delivery; inclusive of patient-centered cardiac surgery, mentorship, didactics, skill transfer, and investment in a sustainable cardiac program to address critical RHD in sub-Saharan Africa.

Reproductive health among women of child-bearing age after surgery for rheumatic heart disease in Rwanda.

OBJECTIVE: To determine maternal and fetal outcomes in postoperative women with rheumatic heart disease who become pregnant after valve surgery and evaluate current anticoagulation management during pregnancy. METHODS: Data from the Rwandan rheumatic heart disease cardiac surgical registry identified all female patients who underwent valve surgery before or during childbearing age since 2006. In total, 136 participants completed a mixed-methods questionnaire detailing each pregnancy after surgery, including anticoagulation regimen and outcomes. RESULTS: We found that 38.2% (n = 136) of patients reported at least 1 pregnancy after surgery, of which more than one half were unintentional (53.9%, n = 52). Among those patients with mechanical valves, most remained on warfarin alone during pregnancy (58.5%, n = 53) whereas one third were switched to low molecular weight heparin during the first, second, or third trimesters (5 vs 4 vs 7, n = 18). Women with bioprosthetic valve replacement or valve repair were more likely to experience live term births (84.6% vs 45.3%, P < .01) and less likely to report spontaneous abortion (3.9% vs 30.2%, P < .01) compared with women with mechanical valve replacement. Excessive bleeding was the most common complication during pregnancy (9.1%, n = 79), and 2 infants were diagnosed with congenital defects associated with warfarin embryopathy (4.8%, n = 42). CONCLUSIONS: Despite preoperative counseling discouraging conception, many women with prosthetic valves still become pregnant after surgery. The results of this study will inform evidence-based and context-specific practices for anticoagulation during pregnancy in Rwanda and the region.

Catheter interventions in congenital heart disease without regular catheterization laboratory equipment: the chain of hope experience in Rwanda.

This report describes the feasibility and safety of cardiac catheterization in a developing country without access to a regular cardiac catheterization laboratory. The equipment used for imaging consisted of a monoplane conventional C-arm X-ray system and a portable ultrasound machine using the usual guidewires and catheters for cardiovascular access. In this study, 30 patients, including 17 children younger than 2 years and 2 adults, underwent catheterization of the following cardiac anomalies: patent ductus arteriosus (20 patients) and pulmonary valve stenosis (9 patients, including 2 patients with critical stenosis and 3 patients with a secundum atrial septal defect). Except for two cases requiring surgery, the patients were treated successfully without complications. They all were discharged from hospital, usually the day after cardiac catheterization, and showed significant clinical improvement in the follow-up evaluation. Cardiac catheterization can be performed safely and very effectively in a country with limited resources. If patients are well selected, this mode of treatment is possible without the support of a sophisticated catheterization laboratory.

Bacteriological Study of Electronic Devices Used by Healthcare Workers at Ruhengeri Referral Hospital.

Electronic devices have become one of the most essential accessories being used in hospitals. Those devices increase the communication and contact making healthcare delivery more efficient and quality service oriented. The study was designed to collect reliable information about the spreading of pathogens through electronic devices especially in sensitive departments. The objectives of this study were to evaluate the bacterial colonization of electronic devices and determine the effectiveness of disinfection with alcohol 70% (w/v) to reduce the bacterial colonization of electronic devices. It was a cross-sectional study where samples were collected by means of moistened swabs in sterile saline solution from 30 electronic devices used by healthcare workers at Ruhengeri Referral Hospital within four different units: maternity, neonathology, intensive care, and theater room. To evaluate the effects of disinfection using 70% isopropyl alcohol, the second sample collection was carried out after decontamination with 70% isopropyl alcohol. Samples were analyzed in the microbiology lab of INES-Ruhengeri. The result showed that Staphylococcus aureus was the most predominant with 22.5%. Lactobacillus and Citrobacter spp. were 12.5%; Pseudomonas aeruginosa, coagulase-negative Staphylococci, and Serratia marcescens were 10%; Escherichia coli was 7.5%; Klebsiella spp. and Providencia spp. were at 5%. The lowest prevalence was 2.5% of Enterobacter spp. and Salmonella spp. The threat of dissemination of isolated microorganisms is valid, since all devices evaluated in this study showed bacterial contamination of species associated to hospital-acquired infections. Special care should be taken when using electronic devices in healthcare settings in addition to disinfection to reduce the risk of transmission of bacterial agents. Further studies should evaluate the antibiotic susceptibility for better conclusive results since all isolated bacteria in this study were subjected to high resistance and were associated with nosocomial infections.

The COVID-19 Pandemic and Non-communicable Diseases-A Wake-up Call for Primary Health Care System Strengthening in Sub-Saharan Africa.

Strengthening Primary Health Care Systems is the most effective policy response in low-and middle-income countries to protect against health emergencies, achieve universal health coverage, and promote health and wellbeing. Despite the Astana declaration on primary health care, respective investment is still insufficient in Sub-Sahara Africa. The SARS-CoV-2019 pandemic is a reminder that non-communicable diseases (NCDs), which are increasingly prevalent in Sub-Sahara Africa, are closely interlinked to the burden of communicable diseases, exacerbating morbidity and mortality. Governments and donors should use the momentum created by the pandemic in a sustainable and effective way by pivoting health spending towards primary health care.

Fighting non-communicable diseases in East Africa: assessing progress and identifying the next steps.

Sub-Saharan Africa has seen a rapid increase in non-communicable disease (NCD) burden over the last decades. The East African Community (EAC) comprises Burundi, Rwanda, Kenya, Tanzania, South Sudan and Uganda, with a population of 177 million. In those countries, 40% of deaths in 2015 were attributable to NCDs. We review the status of the NCD response in the countries of the EAC based on the available monitoring tools, the WHO NCD progress monitors in 2017 and 2020 and the East African NCD Alliance benchmark survey in 2017. In the EAC, modest progress in governance, prevention of risk factors, monitoring, surveillance and evaluation of health systems can be observed. Many policies exist on paper, implementation and healthcare are weak and there are large regional and subnational differences. Enhanced efforts by regional and national policy-makers, non-governmental organisations and other stakeholders are needed to ensure future NCD policies and implementation improvements.

Postoperative Rheumatic Heart Disease Follow-Up: Creating a National Registry and First Results from Rwanda.

Background: In many developing countries, rheumatic heart disease (RHD) is diagnosed at an advanced stage and requires surgery for patient survival. However, access to cardiac surgery in this context is limited and often provided through partnerships, requiring centralized patient data systems for monitoring and follow-up. Objectives: This study used data from a national postoperative RHD registry to analyze clinical outcomes of Rwandan patients who received surgery between 2006 and 2017. Methods: The RHD registry was created in 2017 using data compiled from Rwanda Ministry of Health and RHD surgery partners. We extracted pre- and post-operative data on patients who were alive and in care. We excluded patients who died or were lost to follow-up, as their data was not collected in the registry. We evaluated the association between demographic, surgical, and follow-up characteristics and most recent patient symptoms, categorized by New York Heart Association (NYHA) class. Findings: Among the 191 patients eligible for inclusion in this study, 107(56.0%) were female, 110(57.6%) were adults at the time of surgery (>15 years), and 128(67.4%) had surgery in Rwanda. Most patients (n = 166, 86.9%) were on penicillin prophylaxis. Of the patients with mechanical valves, 47(29.9%) had therapeutic International Normalized Ratio values. 90% of patients were asymptomatic (NYHA I) at the time of most recent visit. NYHA class was not significantly associated with any of the considered variables. The median length of follow-up for patients was four years (IQR: 2, 5 years). Conclusion: This study shows both the feasibility and challenges of creating a RHD registry 11 years after the national initiation of RHD surgeries. Most patients captured in the registry are asymptomatic; however, collecting details on patients who had died or were lost to follow-up has proven difficult. Implementing strategies to maintain a complete and up-to-date registry will facilitate follow-up for pre- and postoperative patients.

Cost of integrated chronic care for severe non-communicable diseases at district hospitals in rural Rwanda.

BACKGROUND: Integrated clinical strategies to address non-communicable disease (NCDs) in sub-Saharan Africa have largely been directed to prevention and treatment of common conditions at primary health centres. This study examines the cost of organising integrated nurse-driven, physician-supervised chronic care for more severe NCDs at an outpatient specialty clinic associated with a district hospital in rural Rwanda. Conditions addressed included type 1 and type 2 diabetes, chronic respiratory disease, heart failure and rheumatic heart disease. METHODS: A retrospective costing analysis was conducted from the facility perspective using data from administrative sources and the electronic medical record systems of Butaro District Hospital in rural Rwanda. We determined initial start-up and annual operating financial cost of the Butaro district advanced NCD clinic for the fiscal year 2013-2014. Per-patient annual cost by disease category was determined. RESULTS: A total of US$47 976 in fixed start-up costs was necessary to establish a new advanced NCD clinic serving a population of approximately 300 000 people (US$0.16 per capita). The additional annual operating cost for this clinic was US$68 975 (US$0.23 per capita) to manage a 632-patient cohort and provide training, supervision and mentorship to primary health centres. Labour comprised 54% of total cost, followed by medications at 17%. Diabetes mellitus had the highest annual cost per patient (US$151), followed by heart failure (US$104), driven primarily by medication therapy and laboratory testing. CONCLUSIONS: This is the first study to evaluate the costs of integrated, decentralised chronic care for some severe NCDs in rural sub-Saharan Africa. The findings show that these services may be affordable to governments even in the most constrained health systems.

Outcomes for patients with rheumatic heart disease after cardiac surgery followed at rural district hospitals in Rwanda.

BACKGROUND: In sub-Saharan Africa, continued clinical follow-up, after cardiac surgery, is only available at urban referral centres. We implemented a decentralised, integrated care model to provide longitudinal care for patients with advanced rheumatic heart disease (RHD) at district hospitals in rural Rwanda before and after heart surgery. METHODS: We collected data from charts at non-communicable disease (NCD) clinics at three rural district hospitals in Rwanda to describe the outcomes of 54 patients with RHD who received cardiac valve surgery during 2007-2015. RESULTS: The majority of patients were adults (46/54; 85%), and 74% were females. The median age at the time of surgery was 22 years in adults and 11 years in children. Advanced symptoms-New York Heart Association class III or IV-were present in 83% before surgery and only 4% afterwards. The mitral valve was the most common valve requiring surgery. Valvular surgery consisted mostly of a single valve (56%) and double valve (41%). Patients were followed for a median of 3 years (range 0.2-7.9) during which 7.4% of them died; all deaths were patients who had undergone bioprosthetic valve replacement. For patients with mechanical valves, anticoagulation was checked at 96% of visits. There were no known bleeding or thrombotic events requiring hospitalisation. CONCLUSION: Outcomes of postoperative patients with RHD tracked in rural Rwanda health facilities were generally good. With appropriate training and supervision, it is feasible to safely decentralise follow-up of patients with RHD to nurse-led specialised NCD clinics after cardiac surgery.

Ten-year clinical experience of humanitarian cardiothoracic surgery in Rwanda: Building a platform for ultimate sustainability in a resource-limited setting.

OBJECTIVE: Despite its near complete eradication in resource-rich countries, rheumatic heart disease remains the most common acquired cardiovascular disease in sub-Saharan Africa. With a ratio of physicians/population of 1 per 10,500, including only 4 cardiologists for a population of 11.4 million, Rwanda represents a resource-limited setting lacking the local capacity to detect and treat early cases of strep throat and perform lifesaving operations for advanced rheumatic heart disease. Humanitarian surgical outreach in this region can improve the delivery of cardiovascular care by providing sustainability through mentorship, medical expertise, training, and knowledge transfer, and ultimately the creation of a cardiac center. METHODS: We describe the experience of consecutive annual visits to Rwanda since 2008 and report the outcomes of a collaborative approach to enable sustainable cardiac surgery in the region. The Ferrans and Powers Quality of Life Index tool's Cardiac Version (http://www.uic.edu/orgs/qli/) was administered to assess the postoperative quality of life. RESULTS: Ten visits have been completed, performing 149 open procedures, including 200 valve implantations, New York Heart Association class III or IV, with 4.7% 30-day mortality. All procedures were performed with the participation of local Rwandan personnel, expatriate physicians, nurses, residents, and support staff. Early complications included cerebrovascular accident (n = 4), hemorrhage requiring reoperation (n = 6), and death (n = 7). Quality of life was assessed to further understand challenges encountered after cardiac surgery in this resource-limited setting. Four major domains were considered: health and functioning, social and economic, psychologic/spiritual, and family. The mean total quality of life index was 20.79 ± 4.07 on a scale from 0 to 30, for which higher scores indicated higher quality of life. Women had significantly lower "social and economic" subscores (16.81 ± 4.17) than men (18.64 ± 4.10) (P < .05). Patients who reported receiving their follow-up care in rural health centers also had significantly lower "social and economic" subscores (15.67 ± 3.81) when compared with those receiving follow-up care in urban health facilities (18.28 ± 4.16) (P < .005). Value afforded to family and psychologic factors remained high among all groups. Major postsurgical challenges faced included barriers to follow-up and systemic anticoagulation. CONCLUSIONS: This report represents the first account of a long-term humanitarian effort to develop sustainability in cardiac surgery in a resource-limited setting, Rwanda. With the use of volunteer teams to deliver care, transfer knowledge, and mentor local personnel, the results demonstrate superior outcomes and favorable indices of quality of life. The credibility gained over a decade of effort has created the opportunity for a partnership with Rwanda to establish a dedicated center of cardiac care to assist in mitigating the burden of cardiovascular disease throughout sub-Saharan Africa.

Preliminary consultation on preferred product characteristics of benzathine penicillin G for secondary prophylaxis of rheumatic fever.

Rheumatic fever is caused by an abnormal immune reaction to group A streptococcal infection. Secondary prophylaxis with antibiotics is recommended for people after their initial episode of rheumatic fever to prevent recurrent group A streptococcal infections, recurrences of rheumatic fever and progression to rheumatic heart disease. This secondary prophylaxis must be maintained for at least a decade after the last episode of rheumatic fever. Benzathine penicillin G is the first line antibiotic for secondary prophylaxis, delivered intramuscularly every 2 to 4 weeks. However, adherence to recommended secondary prophylaxis regimens is a global challenge. This paper outlines a consultation with global experts in rheumatic heart disease on the characteristics of benzathine penicillin G formulations which could be changed to improve adherence with secondary prophylaxis. Characteristics included dose interval, pain, administration mechanism, cold chain independence and cost. A sample target product profile for reformulated benzathine penicillin G is presented.

Seven key actions to eradicate rheumatic heart disease in Africa: the Addis Ababa communiqué.

Acute rheumatic fever (ARF) and rheumatic heart disease (RHD) remain major causes of heart failure, stroke and death among African women and children, despite being preventable and imminently treatable. From 21 to 22 February 2015, the Social Cluster of the Africa Union Commission (AUC) hosted a consultation with RHD experts convened by the Pan-African Society of Cardiology (PASCAR) in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, to develop a 'roadmap' of key actions that need to be taken by governments to eliminate ARF and eradicate RHD in Africa. Seven priority areas for action were adopted: (1) create prospective disease registers at sentinel sites in affected countries to measure disease burden and track progress towards the reduction of mortality by 25% by the year 2025, (2) ensure an adequate supply of high-quality benzathine penicillin for the primary and secondary prevention of ARF/RHD, (3) improve access to reproductive health services for women with RHD and other non-communicable diseases (NCD), (4) decentralise technical expertise and technology for diagnosing and managing ARF and RHD (including ultrasound of the heart), (5) establish national and regional centres of excellence for essential cardiac surgery for the treatment of affected patients and training of cardiovascular practitioners of the future, (6) initiate national multi-sectoral RHD programmes within NCD control programmes of affected countries, and (7) foster international partnerships with multinational organisations for resource mobilisation, monitoring and evaluation of the programme to end RHD in Africa. This Addis Ababa communiqué has since been endorsed by African Union heads of state, and plans are underway to implement the roadmap in order to end ARF and RHD in Africa in our lifetime.

Pattern of congenital heart diseases in Rwandan children with genetic defects.

INTRODUCTION: Congenital heart diseases (CHD) are commonly associated with genetic defects. Our study aimed at determining the occurrence and pattern of CHD association with genetic defects among pediatric patients in Rwanda. METHODS: A total of 125 patients with clinical features suggestive of genetic defects were recruited. Echocardiography and standard karyotype studies were performed in all patients. RESULTS: CHDs were detected in the majority of patients with genetic defects. The commonest isolated CHD was ventricular septal defect found in many cases of Down syndrome. In total, chromosomal abnormalities represented the majority of cases in our cohort and were associated with various types of CHDs. CONCLUSION: Our findings showed that CHDs are common in Rwandan pediatric patients with genetic defects. These results suggest that a routine echocardiography assessment combined with systematic genetic investigations including standard karyotype should be mandatory in patients presenting characteristic clinical features in whom CHD is suspected to be associated with genetic defect.