Health Care and Mortality among Persons with Severe Mental Illness.

OBJECTIVE: Reports show disparities in the health care of persons with severe mental illness (SMI), including in countries with universal health insurance. However, the moderating effect on disparities of specific mental health legislation is yet to be studied. The study aimed to investigate equality of health care for people with SMI in a country with a national health insurance and a comprehensive rehabilitation law for persons with mental disabilities. METHOD: A case-control epidemiological study compared health services (laboratory tests, visits to specialists, and medications) provided to users with and without a history of schizophrenia and bipolar disorder ( N = 52,131) and with regard to a subgroup of users with diabetes ( n = 16,280). In addition, we examined the mortality rates of the study population. RESULTS: While service users with schizophrenia were somewhat less likely to meet the same indexes of care as controls, those with bipolar disorder did not differ from their counterparts. Yet, mortality risk among service users with schizophrenia and bipolar disorder was 2.4 and 1.7 times higher, respectively. Rates of services to persons with SMI and comorbid diabetes did not differ from their counterparts. CONCLUSIONS: In Israel, a country with a national health insurance and a rehabilitation law for persons with mental disabilities, service users with bipolar disorder receive equitable levels of general health care. For users with schizophrenia, the disparities exist in some of the health care measures but to a smaller extent than in other countries with universal health insurance. In contrast, mortality rates are elevated in persons with SMI.

Mental disorders in primary care in Israel: prevalence and risk factors.

OBJECTIVE: Psychiatric morbidity is common among patients in primary care services and leads to disability and increased use of medical services. Comparison of primary care and community prevalence data is of interest in relation to the health services planning for mental disorders. The aim of the present study was to measure prevalence of mental disorders in six primary care clinics in Israel and to assess risk factors for these disorders. METHOD: Prevalence of mental disorders was measured in a sample of 2,948 primary care consecutive attendees, using two-stage stratified sampling with the General Health Questionnaire 12 (GHQ-12) and the Composite International Diagnostic Interview (CIDI). RESULTS: A high rate (46.3%) of current mental disorders was found, with rates of current depressive episode, generalized anxiety disorder, somatization disorder, and neurasthenia being relatively high in comparison with rates in other countries. Low education was a risk factor for all categories of disorders, unemployment a risk factor for depressive disorders, and parenthood was protective for most categories of disorders. CONCLUSIONS: High rates of mental disorders were found in this Israeli primary care sample as compared to other countries, while in the community the rates were midrange as compared to other countries, pointing to a relatively higher use of primary care services by patients with mental disorders in Israel than in other countries.

Effect of implementation of mental health services within primary care on GP detection and treatment of mental disorders in Israel.

BACKGROUND: Psychiatric morbidity is frequent in primary care, but a substantial proportion of these psychiatric problems appear to be neither recognized nor adequately treated by GPs. There exists a number of models of introduction of mental health services (MHS) into primary care, but little data are available on their effect on GPs' detection or management of mental disorders. The study aimed to measure the effect of referring patients to a psychiatrist within primary care (Shifted OutPatient model-SOP) or consultation of psychiatrists by the GPs (Psychiatric Community Consultation Liaison-PCCL) on the detection and treatment of mental disorders by GPs. METHODS: In six primary care clinics in Israel (three "SOP clinics" and three "PCCL clinics"), GP detection of mental disorders and treatment of GP-detected cases were evaluated before and after provision of 1-year MHS, according to GP questionnaires on a sample of primary care consecutive attenders whose psychological distress was determined according to the GHQ12 and psychiatric disorders according to the Composite International Diagnostic Interview. RESULTS: After model implementation, a significant reduction in detection of mental disorders was found in SOP clinics, while no significant change was found in PCCL clinics. No significant change in detection of distress was found in any clinic. An increase in referrals to MHS for GP-diagnosed depression and anxiety cases, a reduction in GP counselling for GP-detected cases and those with diagnosed anxiety, an increased prescription of antidepressants and a reduced prescription of antipsychotics were found in SOP clinics. In PCCL clinics, no significant changes in GP management were observed except an increase in referral of GP-diagnosed depression cases to MHS. CONCLUSIONS: MHS models did not improve GP detection of mental disorders or distress, but possibly improved referral case mix. The SOP model might have a deskilling influence on GPs, resulting from less involvement in treatment, with decrease of detection and counselling. This should be taken into consideration when planning to increase referrals to a psychiatrist within primary care settings. Lack of positive effect of the PCCL model might be overcome by more intensive programs incorporating educational components.

[Clozapine--the neglected potential].

Clozapine has been in use since 1975. It was withdrawn due to its toxic effects on granulocytes. It was reintroduced due to its positive effect on schizophrenia in patients who did not respond to two antipsychotic drugs. These patients suffer from a chronic debilitating disease, with numerous and sometimes chronic hospitalizations. Clozapine also has antiaggression and antisuicide effects, as well as specific effects on the negative symptoms of schizophrenia. There are severe side effects that may appear. These include suppression of granulocytes, cardiotoxic effect on the myocard, as well as cardiac conduction defects. It may also cause weight gain and early appearance of diabetis mellitus. All these side effects require strict and intensive monitoring. Clozapine blood Levels are needed for ascertaining the required dose. This article describes several reasons for the low level of use of clozapine in Israel. These include its side effect profile, tendency to use new medications, the demanding monitoring for side effects and the need for long term treatment to achieve clinical improvement.

[Schizophrenia--a life shortening disease].

The life expectancy of schizophrenic patients is shortened by about 20%. This alarming finding is mainly caused by an increased rate of the metabolic syndrome which is inherent in schizophrenic patients and is increased by the use of antipsychotic drugs, mainly second generation drugs. Another reason is a high rate of suicide and violent death. There is a controversy about the relationship of malignant disease and schizophrenia. Problems in the health behavior of patients should also be considered, mainly lack of exercise, high smoking rate, inappropriate diet and overweight. Psychiatrists and family physicians tend to be passive in dealing with this problem. This article proposes activism of the medical profession aimed at improving health behavior, early detection of physical problems and increased awareness of the medical profession, patients and their families.

In vivo occipital-frontal temperature-gradient in schizophrenia patients and its possible association with psychopathology: a magnetic resonance spectroscopy study.

BACKGROUND: Accumulating data suggest that schizophrenia patients' mental status might be modulated by their core/brain temperature. Hence, we intended to assess in vivo brain temperature (Tb) of schizophrenia patients vs. healthy subjects and to evaluate its potential association with patients' mental status. METHODS: Absolute values of Tb were measured in 9 neuroleptic-treated schizophrenia patients and 10 healthy comparison subjects using 1H magnetic resonance spectroscopy (MRS). Values were extracted by measuring the chemical shift between the peaks of water and N-acetyl-aspartate in the 1H MRS spectra. RESULTS: A substantial (about 1.1 degrees C) and significantly higher occipital-frontal temperature-gradient was found in the schizophrenia patients compared to the healthy controls (1.27 degrees C vs. 0.18 degrees C; p=0.032). Furthermore, a trend was found between the above mentioned occipital-frontal temperature-gradient in the schizophrenia patients and the severity of their psychopathology, as assessed by the total Positive and Negative Syndrome Scale (PANSS) scores (r=0.61; p=0.08). CONCLUSIONS: Our findings corroborate previous results indicating putative correlation between core/brain temperature and the mental status of schizophrenia patients, emphasizing the possible role of within patients decreased frontal temperature and a significant occipital-frontal temperature-gradient as modulators of psychopathology. In addition, the MRS technique used for brain temperature assessment seems to be a potential non-invasive method to assess in vivo absolute Tb in schizophrenia.

Antipsychotics and diabetes: an age-related association.

BACKGROUND: Previous studies have reported an association between anti-psychotic medications and diabetes. OBJECTIVE: To explore the association between antipsychotic medications and diabetes in patients of different ages. METHODS: A retrospective analysis of a large health maintenance organization's drug claim database (3.7 million members) was performed. All patients treated with antipsychotic drugs during 1998-2004 were identified. Patients with diabetes were defined by a record of antidiabetic drug use during 2004. The prevalence of diabetes in different age groups treated with antipsychotics was compared with the prevalence of diabetes among enrollees in the same age groups not treated with antipsychotics. RESULTS: Among 82,754 patients treated with antipsychotics, the association between diabetes and consumption of antipsychotics was strongest in the younger age groups and decreased with increasing age: for patients aged 0-24 years, OR 8.9 (95% CI 7.0 to 11.3); 25-44 years, OR 4.2 (95% CI 3.8 to 4.5); 45-54 years, OR 1.9 (95% CI 1.8 to 2.1); 55-64 years, OR 1.3 (95% CI 1.2 to 1.4); and 65 years or older, OR 0.93 (95% CI 0.9 to 1.0). However, the risk associated with atypical antipsychotics was lower than the risk associated with typical antipsychotics, with ORs ranging from 0.7 in patients 0-24 years old to 0.3 in those 65 years or older. CONCLUSIONS: Antipsychotic drug use was associated with diabetes mellitus. This association was stronger in younger patients. In older adults, the difference was much smaller and, in some cases, there was no association. A lower risk was associated with atypical agents, as compared with typical antipsychotics. Clinicians should be aware that young adults treated with antipsychotics are at increased risk for diabetes.

A significant correlation between ward temperature and the severity of symptoms in schizophrenia inpatients--a longitudinal study.

BACKGROUND: Preliminary data suggest that schizophrenia outpatients' mental status might be affected, at least to some extent, by environmental temperature. To further substantiate the potential role of environmental temperature and schizophrenic symptoms we examined, in a naturalistic design, the relationship between environmental temperature of schizophrenia inpatients (i.e., ward temperature) and their mental status. METHODS: Mean daily temperature of a closed psychiatric ward was monitored for 32 consecutive weeks. Temperature assessments were performed at 3 different locations within the ward at the same hour daily. Mean daily temperature was defined as the average of the 3 values. During each of the 32 weeks of the study, the inpatients were divided into two sub-groups: schizophrenia patients (n=22-34 patients/week) and non-schizophrenia psychotic patients (n=5-12 patients/week). The mental status of all participants was evaluated weekly using the positive and negative syndrome scale (PANSS). All participants were treated with antipsychotics during the entire study period. RESULTS: Schizophrenia patients' total PANSS score, as well as each of the PANSS' subscales (positive, negative, general psychopathology, depression) were positively and significantly correlated with ward temperature (r=0.52-0.64; p=0.002-0.0001). No correlation was found between ward temperature and any of the PANSS' subscales in the non-schizophrenia psychotic subjects. CONCLUSION: Our results suggest that schizophrenia inpatients' mental status might be modulated, at least to some extent, by environmental (i.e., ward) temperature and that this phenomenon is specific to schizophrenia patients. Our findings imply the need for optimally adjusting ward temperature (e.g., about 19 degrees C in this study) for the management of patients with acute psychotic exacerbation of schizophrenia.

Double disparities in the health care for people with schizophrenia of an ethnic-national minority.

BACKGROUND: Studies have shown health care disparities among persons of minority status, including in countries with universal health care. Yet, a dearth of studies have addressed disparities resulting from the combined effect of two minority status groups: severe mental illness and ethnic-national sector filiation. This study aimed to compare the differential health care of Jewish- and Arab-Israelis with schizophrenia in a country with a universal health insurance. METHOD: This study builds on a large case-control epidemiological sample (N = 50,499) of Jewish- (92.9%) and Arab-Israelis (7.1%) service users with (n = 16,833) and without schizophrenia (n = 33,666). Health services records were collected in the years 2000-2009. Diabetes and cardiovascular disease (CVD) served as sentinel diseases. We compared annual number of LDL tests and visits to specialists in the entire sample, Hemoglobin-A1C test among people diagnosed with diabetes, and cardiac surgical interventions for those diagnosed with CVD. RESULTS: Service users with schizophrenia were less likely to meet identical indexes of care as their study counterparts: 95% of cholesterol tests (p < .001), and 92% visits to specialists (p < .001). These differences were greater among Arab- compared to Jewish-Israelis. Annual frequency of Hemoglobin-A1C test among people diagnosed with diabetes was lower (94%) in people with schizophrenia (p < 0.01), but no ethnic-national differences were identified. Among service users with CVD less surgical interventions were done in people with schizophrenia (70%) compared to their counterparts, with no ethnic-national disparities. CONCLUSIONS: In Israel, service users with schizophrenia fail to receive equitable levels of medical and cardiac surgical care for CVD and regular laboratory tests for diabetes. Although disparities in some health indicators were enhanced among Arab-Israelis, schizophrenia was a greater source of disparities than ethnic-national filiation.

Cancer prevalence in Israeli men and women with schizophrenia.

The aim of this cross-sectional study was to compare cancer prevalence rates among patients with schizophrenia to those of the non-schizophrenia population. The study population included members of Clalit Health Services aged 25 to 74 years and all data was taken from patients' electronic health records. Of the 2,060,314 members who were included in the study, 32,748 had a diagnosis of schizophrenia. Cancer prevalence rates in women with and without schizophrenia were 491 per 10,000 and 439 per 10,000, respectively; in men, cancer prevalence rates were 226 per 10,000 and 296 per 10,000, respectively. The age-adjusted prevalence rate of all-type cancer was significantly lower among men with schizophrenia, compared to men without schizophrenia; specifically, men with schizophrenia had a lower rate of prostate cancer, and of cancers in the "other" category, compared to men without schizophrenia. Reduced cancer rates in men with schizophrenia may reflect under-diagnosis of some cancer types, likely due to insufficient medical attention. An effort to improve screening regimes should be made.

Primary Care Physicians' Attitudes Toward Postpartum Depression: Is It Part of Their Job?

OBJECTIVES: This study surveyed Israeli primary care physicians' attitudes and practice regarding postpartum depression (PPD). METHODS: Participants included 224 pediatricians and family practitioners responding to an online survey (65% response rate). RESULTS: Almost all respondents (98.0%) considered it important that they be able to recognize the signs of PPD. Most (89.8%) noted that if they suspected PPD, they would become somewhat involved: clarifying, keeping attentive, consulting with colleagues, and/or referring the woman to another professional. Six respondents--only family practitioners--stated that they would treat the case themselves (P = .01). Family practitioners were significantly more willing to screen for PPD than were pediatricians (91.2% vs 64.6%; P < .0001). There were no differences between physicians by region or between males and females when comparing all respondents, as well as when comparing within medical specialty (P < .05). CONCLUSIONS: There is a clear difference between considering the importance of recognizing signs of PPD and acting on it. Family practitioners had more favorable attitudes than did pediatricians, however screening in pediatric facilities is considered by many to be optimal. Hopefully future directions for medical education and health policy for family practitioners and pediatricians, as well as obstetrician/gynecologists, will meet the challenge of early identification and treatment of PPD for the benefit of women, infants and families.

Expressed emotion: relevance to rehospitalization in schizophrenia over 7 years.

Expressed emotion (EE) is an established factor in short-term relapse in schizophrenia. However, data on its long-term predictive ability are scarce. We extended our short-term investigation over 7 years' followup. The study population consisted of 108 patients, 93 with schizophrenia and 15 with schizoaffective disorder. EE of the key relatives was rated with the Five Minute Speech Sample (FMSS). Patient households were categorized by EE and its two components: criticism (CR) and emotional overinvolvement (EOI). High CR was associated with earlier first and second readmissions (Breslow p = 0.002 and 0.04, respectively). High CR was associated with a higher rate of readmissions (p = 0.01) and a longer hospital stay (p = 0.02) compared with low CR. Both compliance with pharmacotherapy and the interaction of high-CR x poor compliance were additional contributors to time to first readmission. This study is the first to demonstrate the prolonged predictive validity of EE. Our results support the value of CR as a prognostic indicator of the course of schizophrenia. The FMSS appears to have predictive power in respect to psychiatric hospitalization. Therapies aimed at lowering high EE seem warranted as a long-term preventive approach.

Familial expressed emotion: outcome and course of Israeli patients with schizophrenia.

We investigated the validity of expressed emotion (EE) in Israel. The study sample consisted of 108 patients with schizophrenia and 15 with schizoaffective disorder, and their key relatives. EE was rated with the Five Minute Speech Sample (FMSS). Patient households were categorized by EE and its two components: criticism and emotional overinvolvement. Patients were rated with the Brief Psychiatric Rating Scale (BPRS) at admission, at discharge, and 6 months after discharge. Readmissions were determined over a 9-month period. High EE and particularly high criticism were significantly associated with poorer outcome (higher rate of and earlier readmissions, and higher BPRS score at followup) and worse illness course (higher annual number of prior psychiatric hospital admissions). Odds ratios between high EE and high criticism and readmission were 2.6 and 3.5, respectively. The strongest predictor of earlier readmission was the interaction of high criticism x poor compliance with medication. The results converge to further confirm the notion that familial EE is a valid crosscultural predictor of the clinical course of schizophrenia. Moreover, EE has predictive power in very chronic samples. Criticism appears to be the crucial EE component linked with short-term outcome. Treatment aimed at reducing high criticism is warranted. The FMSS appears to have predictive validity.

Increased corneal temperature in drug-free male schizophrenia patients.

Schizophrenia patients may exhibit altered body temperature. We hypothesized that drug-free patients may have a higher corneal temperature than normal subjects. The corneal temperature of seven remitted drug-free schizophrenia outpatients and seven healthy volunteers was evaluated with a flir thermal imaging camera. A significantly higher corneal temperature was observed in the patient group (34.60+/-1.89 vs. 33.05+/-0.58 degrees C; P=0.005) and it correlated with their BPRS score (r=0.82; P=0.024). The relevance of these preliminary findings merit further investigation.

Precautionary measures reduce risk of definite neuroleptic malignant syndrome in newly typical neuroleptic-treated schizophrenia inpatients.

Neuroleptic malignant syndrome (NMS) is a potentially lethal antipsychotic drug (APD)-induced thermoregulatory disturbance. We hypothesized that several precautionary measures taken after administeration of APDs might prevent progression to definite NMS. The study group included 657 consecutively admitted drug-free schizophrenia inpatients who received various typical APDs for 28 days. Specific predefined precautionary measures were employed for this group. The comparison group (n=192) consisted of typical APD-treated schizophrenia inpatients in whom such precautionary measures were not imposed. The study group exhibited a significantly lower incidence of definite NMS (1/657=0.2% versus 4/192=2.1%; P=0.01, odds ratio=13.96; 95% confidence interval 1.55-125.63). Antipsychotics were discontinued in 28 patients (28/657=4.3%) from the study group due to NMS (n=1) or early detection of potential NMS-related signs (probable abortive NMS) (n=27). Our findings suggest that specific precautionary measures can effectively reduce the incidence of definite NMS by approximately one order in newly medicated schizophrenia inpatients.

Atypical neuroleptic malignant syndrome associated with risperidone treatment in two adolescents.

Neuroleptic Malignant Syndrome (NMS) is a known, life threatening, side effect of classical antipsychotic drugs. We report two cases of 16 and 17 year old males, who suffered life-threatening "NMS-Like" syndromes in association with Risperidone treatment. Further controlled studies are needed.

Association between corneal temperature and mental status of treatment-resistant schizophrenia inpatients.

INTRODUCTION: Preliminary point-prevalent data suggest that drug-free schizophrenia patients may exhibit increased body/corneal temperature, that antipsychotic drugs (APDs) may decrease body/core temperature and that patients' mental status might be associated with their body/corneal temperature. Hence, we hypothesized that treatment-resistant psychotic APD-treated schizophrenia patients' mental status may correlate with their corneal temperature during a continuous 6-week period. METHODS: Corneal temperature of 12 treatment-resistant schizophrenia inpatients and 16 healthy volunteers was evaluated 2-3 times a week during 6 consecutive weeks using a flir thermal imaging camera. RESULTS: A significant and substantial correlation was found between inpatients' mean weekly Positive and Negative Syndrome Scale (PANSS)'s total scores and their mean weekly corneal temperature during the 6-week study period (r=0.82; n=6 weeks; p=0.043). There was no significant difference in mean 6-week corneal temperature between the patient group and the healthy subjects (34.25+/-0.64 degrees C vs. 34.39+/-0.69 degrees C, respectively; t=1.127, df=131, p=0.26). CONCLUSIONS: This study indicates that treatment-resistant overtly psychotic schizophrenia inpatients' mental status (as assessed by the PANSS) correlates with their corneal temperature. The relevance of these phenomena to the pathophysiology of schizophrenia, the biological mechanism underlying corneal temperature alterations and the possible role of temperature-modulating drugs (neuroleptics or non-neuroleptics) on schizophrenic psychosis merits further large-scale investigation in both medicated- and drug-free schizophrenia patients compared to matched controls.