A review of potable water accessibility and sustainability issues in developing countries - case study of Uganda.

Providing sources of sustainable and quality potable water in Uganda is a significant public health issue. This project aimed at identifying and prioritizing possible actions on how sustainable high quality potable water in Uganda's water supply systems could be achieved. In that respect, a review of both the current water supply systems and government programs on drinking water in Uganda was completed. Aspects of quantity, quality, treatment methods, infrastructure, storage and distribution of water for different water systems were evaluated and compared with the existing water supply systems in the U.S., Latin America and the Caribbean, for purposes of generating feasible recommendations and opportunities for improvement. Uganda utilizes surface water, groundwater, and rainwater sources for consumption. Surface water covers 15.4% of the land area and serves both urban and rural populations. Lake Victoria contributes about 85% of the total fresh surface water. Potable water quality is negatively affected by the following factors: disposal of sewage and industrial effluents, agricultural pesticides and fertilizers, and surface run-offs during heavy rains. The total renewable groundwater resources in Uganda are estimated to be 29 million m3/year with about 20,000 boreholes, 3000 shallow-wells and 200,000 springs, serving more than 80% of the rural and slum communities. Mean annual rainfall in Uganda ranges from 500 mm to 2500 mm. Groundwater and rainwater quality is mainly affected by poor sanitation and unhygienic practices. There are significant regional variations in the accessibility of potable water, with the Northeastern region having the least amount of potable water from all sources. Uganda still lags behind in potable water resource development. Priorities should be placed mainly on measures available for improvement of groundwater and rainwater resource utilization, protection of watersheds, health education, improved water treatment methods and distribution in rural areas, and pollution control and monitoring. Implementing these changes can promote potable water accessibility especially to the poor populations living in rural and urban slum areas because they comprise the majority (80%) of Uganda's population.

Fine particles exposure and cardiopulmonary morbidity in Jeddah: A time-series analysis.

Health effects linked to PM2.5, have been extensively studied in developed countries of Europe and N. America. However, little has been done in Saudi Arabia and the Middle East. This study evaluated the morbidity risk for cardiovascular (CVD) and respiratory (RD) diseases, associated with PM2.5 exposure in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia. 24-h PM2.5 sampling was conducted at 3 sites for 6 weeks quarterly from Apr 8th, 2013-Feb 18th, 2014 with simultaneous hospital data collection. The relative risks (RRs) for cardiopulmonary morbidity at different moving averages (MAs) of lagged exposures were estimated using a generalized linear time-series model. Elevated risks for RD were associated with recent PM2.5 exposures (0-2 days). RD prevalence was highest in children 0-14 years. Overall, RD morbidity risk ranged from 1.081 (CI: 1.005-1.162) to 1.096 (CI: 1.023-1.173) at MAs_2-4; male, 1.081 (CI: 1.019-1.146) to 1.087 (CI: 1.020-1.159) at MAs_2-3, and female, 1.086 (CI: 1.007-1.172) to 1.093 (CI: 1.017-1.175) at MAs_2-4. Generally, females 0-14 years were the most at risk for RDs with RR = 1.097 (CI: 1.025-1.174) to 1.148 (CI: 1.049-1.257). CVD morbidity risk was highest in ER visits with overall RR = 1.057 (CI: 1.005-1.111) to 1.137 (CI: 1.065-1.213) across all MAs; male, 1.060 (CI: 1.007-1.204) to 1.131 (CI: 1.060-1.208); female, 1.065 (CI: 1.008-1.125) to 1.116 (CI: 1.045-1.192). PM2.5 exposure showed significantly increased cardiopulmonary morbidity risk, accentuating the severe health effects associated with elevated PM2.5 in Jeddah. Overall, females (0-14 years) were more at risk for RD morbidity than males. CVD morbidity risk was relatively higher in males than females, with highest risk observed in age-groups above 40 years.

Analysis of terephthalate metabolites in human urine by high-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (HPLC-MS/MS).

Owing to their toxicity, phthalate plasticizers are currently being replaced with terephthalates in many consumer products. Nevertheless, data on human exposure to and toxicity of terephthalates are still scarce. In this study, we developed a robust analytical method for the measurement of six terephthalate metabolites (TPhMs) in human urine through their successful separation from phthalate metabolites (PhMs). Target analytes were identified, using commercially available standards, and quantified with isotopically labeled internal standards (IS). The limits of quantification (LOQ) of TPhMs were in the range of 0.12 to 0.4 ng/mL, with the exception of 2.8 ng/mL for terephthalic acid (TPA) and 3.75 ng/mL for mono-(2-ethylhexyl) terephthalate (mEHTP), which were found in procedural blanks at notable levels. The method developed in this study showed excellent accuracy (recoveries: 86-117%) and precision (RSD: 0.6-12.2%) for TPhMs. The method was successfully applied for the analysis of 30 human urine samples collected from individuals with no known history of occupational exposure. The detection frequencies (df %) of TPhMs in urine ranged between 26.6 and 100%. This is one of the first studies that report a method for the analysis of emerging class of environmental chemicals in human specimens.

Ambient air quality in the holy city of Makkah: A source apportionment with elemental enrichment factors (EFs) and factor analysis (PMF).

Air pollution remains a major global public health and environmental issue. We assessed the levels of PM2.5 and delineated the major sources in Makkah, Saudi Arabia. Fine particulate matter (PM2.5) sampling was performed from February 26, 2014-January 27, 2015 in four cycles/seasons. Samples were analyzed for black carbon (BC) and trace elements (TEs). PM2.5 source apportionment was performed by computing enrichment factors (EFs) and positive matrix factorization (PMF). Backward-in time trajectories were used to assess the long-range transport. Significant seasonal variations in PM2.5 were observed, Spring: 113 ±â€¯67.1, Summer: 88.3 ±â€¯36.4, Fall: 67.8 ±â€¯24, and Winter: 67.6 ±â€¯36.9 µg m-3. The 24-h PM2.5 exceeded the WHO (25 µg m-3) and Saudi Arabia's (35 µg m-3) guidelines, with an air quality index (AQI) of "unhealthy to hazardous" to human health. Most delta-C computations were below zero, indicating minor contributions from bio-mass burning. TEs were primarily Si, Ca, Fe, Al, S, K and Mg, suggesting major contributions from soil (Si, Ca, Fe, Al, Mg), and industrial and vehicular emissions (S, Ca, Al, Fe, K). EF defined two broad categories of TEs as: anthropogenic (Cu, Zn, Eu, Cl, Pb, S, Br and Lu), and earth-crust derived (Al, Si, Na, Mg, Rb, K, Zr, Ti, Fe, Mn, Sr, Y, Cr, Ga, Ca, Ni and Ce). Notably, all the anthropogenic TEs can be linked to industrial and vehicular emissions. PMF analysis defined four major sources as: vehicular emissions, 30.1%; industrial-mixed dust, 28.9%; soil/earth-crust, 24.7%; and fossil-fuels/oil combustion, 16.3%. Plots of wind trajectories indicated wind direction and regional transport as major influences on air pollution levels in Makkah. In collusion, anthropogenic emissions contributed >75% of the observed air pollution in Makkah. Developing strategies for reducing anthropogenic emissions are paramount to controlling particulate air pollution in this region.

Association of fine particulate air pollution with cardiopulmonary morbidity in Western Coast of Saudi Arabia.

OBJECTIVES: To assess cardiopulmonary morbidity associated with daily exposures to PM2.5 in Western Coast of Saudi Arabia. Methods: We monitored 24-h PM2.5 and its constituents including black carbon (BC), particulate sulfate (p-SO42-), nitrate (p-NO3-), ammonium (p-NH4+) and trace elements (TEs) at a site in Rabigh, Saudi Arabia from May to June 2013 with simultaneous collection of hospital data (N=2513). Cardiopulmonary morbidity risk was determined in a generalized linear time-series model.  Results: Exposure to PM2.5 was associated with a 7.6% (p=0.056) increase in risk of respiratory disease (RD) in females. Black carbon increased RD morbidity risk by 68.1% (p=0.056) in females. Exposure to p-SO42- increased the cardiovascular disease (CVD) risk by up to 5.3% (p=0.048) in males; and RD by 2.9% (p=0.037) in females and 2.5% (p=0.022) in males. The p-NH4+ increased CVD risk by up to 20.3% (p=0.033) in males; and RD by 10.7% (p=0.014) in females and 8% (p=0.031) in males. No statistically significant association was observed for p-NO3- and TEs exposure. Conclusion: Overall, results show an increased risk for cardiopulmonary morbidity following exposure to air pollution.