Host Range-Associated Clustering Based on Multilocus Variable-Number Tandem-Repeat Analysis, Phylotypes, and Virulence Genes of Atypical Enteropathogenic Escherichia coli Strains.

Atypical enteropathogenic Escherichia coli (aEPEC) strains (36 Japanese and 50 Bangladeshi) obtained from 649 poultry fecal samples were analyzed by molecular epidemiological methods. Clermont's phylogenetic typing showed that group A was more prevalent (58%, 50/86) than B1 (31%, 27/86). Intimin type ß1, which is prevalent among human diarrheal patients, was predominant in both phylogroups B1 (81%, 22/27) and A (70%, 35/50). However, about 95% of B1-ß1 strains belonged to virulence group I, and 77% of them were Japanese strains, while 17% (6/35) of A-ß1 strains did. Multilocus variable-number tandem-repeat analysis (MLVA) distributed the strains into 52 distinct profiles, with Simpson's index of diversity (D) at 73%. When the data were combined with those of 142 previous strains from different sources, the minimum spanning tree formed five zones for porcine strains, poultry strains (excluding B1-ß1), strains from healthy humans, bovine and human patient strains, and the B1-ß1 poultry strains. Antimicrobial resistance to nalidixic acid was most common (74%) among the isolates. Sixty-eight percent of them demonstrated resistance to ≥3 antimicrobial agents, and most of them (91%) were from Bangladesh. The strains were assigned into two groups by hierarchical clustering. Correlation matrix analysis revealed that the virulence genes were negatively associated with antimicrobial resistance. The present study suggested that poultry, particularly Japanese poultry, could be another reservoir of aEPEC (phylogroup B1, virulence group I, and intimin type ß1); however, poultry strains seem to be apart from patient strains that were closer to bovine strains. Bangladeshi aEPEC may be less virulent for humans but more resistant to antibiotics.IMPORTANCE Atypical enteropathogenic Escherichia coli (aEPEC) is a diarrheagenic type of E. coli, as it possesses the intimin gene (eae) for attachment and effacement on epithelium. Since aEPEC is ubiquitous even in developed countries, we previously used molecular epidemiological methods to discriminate aEPEC as a human pathogen. The present study assessed poultry as another source of human diarrheagenic aEPEC. Poultry could be the source of aEPEC (phylogroup B1, virulence group I, and intimin type ß1) found among patient strains in Japan. However, the minimum spanning tree (MST) suggested that the strains from Japanese poultry were far from Japanese patient strains compared with the distance between bovine and patient strains. Bangladeshi avian strains seemed to be less diarrheagenic but are hazardous as a source of drug resistance genes.

Immunoinformatics for Novel Multi-Epitope Vaccine Development in Canine Parvovirus Infections.

Canine parvovirus (CPV-2) is one of the most important pathogens of dogs of all ages, causing pandemic infections that are characterized by fatal hemorrhagic enteritis. The CPV-2 vaccine is recommended as a core vaccine for pet animals. Despite the intensive practice of active immunization, CPV-2 remains a global threat. In this study, a multi-epitope vaccine against CPV-2 was designed, targeting the highly conserved capsid protein (VP2) via in silico approaches. Several immunoinformatics methods, such as epitope screening, molecular docking, and simulation were used to design a potential vaccine construct. The partial protein sequences of the VP2 gene of CPV-2 and protein sequences retrieved from the NCBI were screened to predict highly antigenic proteins through antigenicity, trans-membrane-topology screening, an allergenicity assessment, and a toxicity analysis. Homologous VP2 protein sequences typically linked to the disease were identified using NCBI BLAST, in which four conserved regions were preferred. Overall, 10 epitopes, DPIGGKTGI, KEFDTDLKP, GTDPDDVQ, GGTNFGYIG, GTFYFDCKP, NRALGLPP, SGTPTN, LGLPPFLNSL, IGGKTG, and VPPVYPN, were selected from the conserved regions to design the vaccine construct. The molecular docking demonstrated the higher binding affinity of these epitopes with dog leukocyte antigen (DLA) molecules. The selected epitopes were linked with Salmonella enterica flagellin FliC adjuvants, along with the PADRE sequence, by GGS linkers to construct a vaccine candidate with 272 nucleotides. The codon adaptation and in silico cloning showed that the generated vaccine can be expressed by the E. coli strain, K12, and the sequence of the vaccine construct showed no similarities with dog protein. Our results suggest that the vaccine construct might be useful in preventing canine parvoviral enteritis (CPE) in dogs. Further in vitro and in vivo experiments are needed for the validation of the vaccine candidate.

Knowledge, Attitudes and Practices Regarding Antibiotic Use and Resistance among Veterinary Students in Bangladesh.

The use of antibiotics in animals for both therapeutic and non-therapeutic purposes is a major driver of the emergence and spread of antimicrobial resistance (AMR). While several studies have investigated prescription and consumption patterns in humans, little attention has been paid to the veterinary sector. A cross-sectional study was conducted in 3002 veterinary students (VS) and non-medical students (NMS) from 12 universities in Bangladesh to explore their knowledge, attitudes and practices (KAP) about antibiotics and AMR using a self-administered questionnaire, and assess the influence of the veterinary curriculum. KAP regarding antibiotic use and AMR was significantly higher in veterinary than non-medical students, and in first-year than final-year students. However, gaps in knowledge and practices were highlighted, suggesting deficiencies in training. Moreover, final-year veterinary students were found to be more likely than first-year students to use antibiotics without instructions, which could indicate deficiencies in their curriculum. Although the study suggested a positive impact of the veterinary curriculum on KAP about antibiotics and AMR in Bangladesh, critical gaps remain that are likely to contribute to inadequate use in their future practice. Therefore, there is scope for improving educational programs on AMR in professional curricula.

Prevalence of Virulence Genes of Diarrheagenic Escherichia coli in Fecal Samples Obtained from Cattle, Poultry and Diarrheic Patients in Bangladesh.

Using multiplex real-time PCR, 960 fecal samples collected from poultry, cattle, and patients with diarrhea in Bangladesh were screened for diarrheagenic Escherichia coli (DEC). The invasion-related gene virB showed the highest prevalence in human patients (41%) and was shown to be positively correlated first with afaB with regards to diffuse adhesion and second with aggR with regards to aggregative adhesion. These three genes were specific to human patients. In contrast, the Shiga toxin genes stx1 (57%) and stx2 (40%) were prevalent in cattle samples. The eae gene, which is associated with attaching and effacing lesion formation, and the elt and est genes, which are associated with enterotoxins, were detected from all three sample sources. Heat map construction and hierarchical clustering assigned the samples into five different clusters, with the patient samples positive for virB and afaB being placed together in one cluster. Although the detection of virulence genes cannot be a direct indication of the distribution of diarrheagenic organisms, their detection suggests that Shigella spp. or enteroinvasive E. coli are the most prevalent diarrheagenic bacteria in Bangladesh and that diffusely adherent E. coli is concomitantly present with these bacteria. eae-possessing organisms in patients may come from cattle and poultry sources. The small number of stx-positive patients could be explained by the small number of animal samples that were positive for both eae and stx.

Prevalence and characterization of multi-drug resistant Salmonella Enterica serovar Gallinarum biovar Pullorum and Gallinarum from chicken.

AIM: Salmonella is an important zoonotic pathogen responsible for animal and human diseases. The aim of the present study was to determine the prevalence and stereotyping of Salmonella isolates isolated from apparently healthy poultry. Furthermore, the clonal relatedness among the isolated Salmonella serovars was assessed. MATERIALS AND METHODS: A total of 150 cloacal swab samples from apparently healthy chickens were collected, and were subjected for the isolation and identification of associated Salmonella organisms. The isolated colonies were identified and characterized on the basis of morphology, cultural characters, biochemical tests, slide agglutination test, polymerase chain reaction, and pulsed-field gel electrophoresis (PFGE). Antibiotic sensitivity patterns were also investigated using commonly used antibiotics. RESULTS: Of the 150 samples, 11 (7.33%) produced characteristics pink colony with black center on XLD agar medium, and all were culturally and biochemically confirmed to be Salmonella. All possessed serovar-specific gene SpeF and reacted uniformly with group D antisera, suggesting that all of the isolates were Salmonella Enterica serovar Gallinarum, biovar Pullorum and/or Gallinarum. Antimicrobial susceptibility testing revealed that 54.54% of the isolated Salmonella Enterica serovars were highly sensitive to ciprofloxacin, whereas the 81.81% isolates were resistant to amoxycillin, doxycycline, kanamycin, gentamycin, and tetracycline. Pulsed-field gel electrophoresis of the XbaI-digested genomic DNA exhibited identical banding patterns, suggesting that the multidrug resistant Salmonella Enterica serovars occurring in commercial layers are highly clonal in Bangladesh. CONCLUSION: The present study was conducted to find out the prevalence of poultry Salmonella in layer chicken and to find out the clonal relationship among them. The data in this study suggest the prevalence of Salmonella Enterica, which is multidrug resistant and highly clonal for commercial layers of Bangladesh.

Surveillance, epidemiological, and virological detection of highly pathogenic H5N1 avian influenza viruses in duck and poultry from Bangladesh.

Avian influenza viruses (AIVs) continue to pose a global threat. Waterfowl are the main reservoir and are responsible for the spillover of AIVs to other hosts. This study was conducted as part of routine surveillance activities in Bangladesh and it reports on the serological and molecular detection of H5N1 AIV subtype. A total of 2169 cloacal and 2191 oropharyngeal swabs as well as 1725 sera samples were collected from live birds including duck and chicken in different locations in Bangladesh between the years of 2013 and 2014. Samples were tested using virus isolation, serological tests and molecular methods of RT-PCR. Influenza A viruses were detected using reverse transcription PCR targeting the virus matrix (M) gene in 41/4360 (0.94%) samples including both cloacal and oropharyngeal swab samples, 31 of which were subtyped as H5N1 using subtype-specific primers. Twenty-one live H5N1 virus isolates were recovered from those 31 samples. Screening of 1,868 blood samples collected from the same birds using H5-specific ELISA identified 545/1603 (34%) positive samples. Disconcertingly, an analysis of 221 serum samples collected from vaccinated layer chicken in four districts revealed that only 18 samples (8.1%) were seropositive for anti H5 antibodies, compared to unvaccinated birds (n=105), where 8 samples (7.6%) were seropositive. Our result indicates that the vaccination program as currently implemented should be reviewed and updated. In addition, surveillance programs are crucial for monitoring the efficacy of the current poultry vaccinations programs, and to monitor the circulating AIV strains and emergence of AIV subtypes in Bangladesh.