Identification of a chemokine receptor encoded by human cytomegalovirus as a cofactor for HIV-1 entry.

The human cytomegalovirus encodes a beta-chemokine receptor (US28) that is distantly related to the human chemokine receptors CCR5 and CXCR4, which also serve as cofactors for the entry into cells of human immunodeficiency virus-type 1 (HIV-1). Like CCR5, US28 allowed infection of CD4-positive human cell lines by primary isolates of HIV-1 and HIV-2, as well as fusion of these cell lines with cells expressing the viral envelope proteins. In addition, US28 mediated infection by cell line-adapted HIV-1 for which CXCR4 was an entry cofactor.

The cytomegalovirus-encoded chemokine receptor US28 can enhance cell-cell fusion mediated by different viral proteins.

The human cytomegalovirus (CMV) US28 gene encodes a functional CC chemokine receptor. However, this activity was observed in cells transfected to express US28 and might not correspond to the actual role of the protein in the CMV life cycle. Expression of US28 allows human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) entry into certain CD4(+) cells and their fusion with cells expressing HIV-1 envelope (Env) proteins. Such properties were initially reported for the cellular chemokine receptors CCR5 and CXCR4, which behave as CD4-associated HIV-1 coreceptors. We found that coexpression of US28 and either CXCR4 or CCR5 in CD4(+) cells resulted in enhanced synctium formation with HIV-1 Env+ cells. This positive effect of US28 on cell fusion seems to be distinct from its HIV-1 coreceptor activity. Indeed, enhancement of cell fusion was also observed when US28 was expressed on the HIV-1 Env+ cells instead of an CD4(+) target cells. Furthermore, US28 could enhance cell fusion mediated by other viral proteins, in particular, the G protein of vesicular stomatitis virus (VSV-G). The HIV-1 coreceptor and fusion-enhancing activities could be affected by mutations in different domains of US28. The fusion-enhancing activity of US28 seems to be cell type dependent. Indeed, cells coexpressing VSV-G and US28 fused more efficiently with human, simian, or feline target cells, while US28 had no apparent effect on fusion with the three mouse or rat cell lines tested. The positive effect of US28 on cell fusion might therefore require its interaction with a cell-specific factor. We discuss a possible role for US28 in the fusion of the CMV envelope with target cells and CMV entry.

Amphotericin B derivative blocks human immunodeficiency virus type 1 entry after CD4 binding: effect on virus-cell fusion but not on cell-cell fusion.

The antiviral effect of MS8209, an amphotericin B derivative, was studied in CD4+ cells transfected with a lacZ gene inducible upon human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) infection. MS8209 was shown to block virus entry after receptor binding and probably before virus-cell membrane fusion, but it had no effect on syncytium formation, although both processes are mediated by HIV-1 envelope proteins and CD4.

Human immunodeficiency virus strains differ in their ability to infect CD4+ cells expressing the rat homolog of CXCR-4 (fusin).

A clade B strain of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1(LAI)) could infect CD4+ cells expressing human CXCR-4 (fusin) or its rat homolog with similar efficacy. By contrast, cells expressing rat CXCR-4 were not permissive to HIV-1(NDK) (clade D), HIV-2(ROD), or HIV-1(LAI) with chimeric envelope protein gp120 bearing the V3 domain from HIV-1(NDK). The reciprocal chimeric gp120 (HIV-1(NDK) with V3 from HIV-1(LAI)) could mediate infection of cells expressing either human or rat CXCR-4. Genetically divergent HIV strains have different requirements for interaction with the CXCR-4 coreceptor, and the gp120 V3 domain seems to be involved in this interaction.

Role of the first and third extracellular domains of CXCR-4 in human immunodeficiency virus coreceptor activity.

The CXCR-4 chemokine receptor and CD4 behave as coreceptors for cell line-adapted human immunodeficiency virus types 1 and 2 (HIV-1 and HIV-2) and for dual-tropic HIV strains, which also use the CCR-5 coreceptor. The cell line-adapted HIV-1 strains LAI and NDK and the dual-tropic HIV-2 strain ROD were able to infect CD4+ cells expressing human CXCR-4, while only LAI was able to infect cells expressing the rat homolog of CXCR-4. This strain selectivity was addressed by using human-rat CXCR-4 chimeras. All chimeras tested mediated LAI infection, but only those containing the third extracellular domain (e3) of human CXCR-4 mediated NDK and ROD infection. The e3 domain might be required for the functional interaction of NDK and ROD, but not LAI, with CXCR-4. Alternatively, LAI might also interact with e3 but in a different way. Monoclonal antibody 12G5, raised against human CXCR-4, did not stain cells expressing rat CXCR-4. Chimeric human-rat CXCR-4 allowed us to map the 12G5 epitope in the e3 domain. The ability of 12G5 to neutralize infection by certain HIV-1 and HIV-2 strains is also consistent with the role of e3 in the coreceptor activity of CXCR-4. The deletion of most of the amino-terminal extracellular domain (e1) abolished the coreceptor activity of human CXCR-4 for ROD and NDK but not for LAI. These results indicate that HIV strains have different requirements for their interaction with CXCR-4. They also suggest differences in the interaction of dual-tropic HIV with CCR-5 and CXCR-4.

Resistance to a drug blocking human immunodeficiency virus type 1 entry (RPR103611) is conferred by mutations in gp41.

A triterpene derived from betulinic acid (RPR103611) blocks human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) infection and fusion of CD4+ cells with cells expressing HIV-1 envelope proteins (gp120 and gp41), suggesting an effect on virus entry. This compound did not block infection by a subtype D HIV-1 strain (NDK) or cell-cell fusion mediated by the NDK envelope proteins. The genetic basis of drug resistance was therefore addressed by testing envelope chimeras derived from NDK and a drug-sensitive HIV-1 strain (LAI, subtype B). A drug-resistant phenotype was observed for all chimeras bearing the ectodomain of NDK gp41, while the origins of gp120 and of the membrane anchor and cytoplasmic domains of gp41 had no apparent role. The envelope gene of a LAI variant, fully resistant to the antiviral effect of RPR103611, was cloned and sequenced. Its product differed from the parental sequence at two positions in gp41, with changes of arginine 22 to alanine (R22A) and isoleucine 84 to serine (I84S), the gp120 being identical. In the context of LAI gp41, the I84S substitution was sufficient for drug resistance. Therefore, in two different systems, differences in gp41 were associated with sensitivity or resistance to RPR103611. Modifications of gp41 can affect the quaternary structure of gp120 and gp41 and the accessibility of gp120 to antiviral agents such as neutralizing antibodies. However, a direct effect of RPR103611 on a gp41 target must also be envisioned, in agreement with the blocking of apparently late steps of HIV-1 entry. This compound could be a valuable tool for structure-function studies of gp41.

Usage of the coreceptors CCR-5, CCR-3, and CXCR-4 by primary and cell line-adapted human immunodeficiency virus type 2.

The chemokine receptors CCR-5 and CXCR-4, and possibly CCR-3, are the principal human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) coreceptors, apparently interacting with HIV-1 envelope, in association with CD4. Cell lines coexpressing CD4 and these chemokine receptors were infected with a panel of seven primary HIV-2 isolates passaged in peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) and three laboratory HIV-2 strains passaged in T-cell lines. The CCR-5, CCR-3, and CXCR-4 coreceptors could all be used by HIV-2. The ability to use CXCR-4 represents a major difference between HIV-2 and the closely related simian immunodeficiency viruses. Most HIV-2 strains using CCR-5 could also use CCR-3, sometimes with similar efficiencies. As observed for HIV-1, the usage of CCR-5 or CCR-3 was observed principally for HIV-2 strains derived from asymptomatic individuals, while HIV-2 strains derived from AIDS patients used CXCR-4. However, there were several exceptions, and the patterns of coreceptor usage seemed more complex for HIV-2 than for HIV-1. The two T-tropic HIV-2 strains tested used CXCR-4 and not CCR-5, while T-tropic HIV-1 can generally use both. Moreover, among five primary HIV-2 strains all unable to use CXCR-4, three could replicate in CCR-5-negative PBMC, which has not been reported for HIV-1. These observations suggest that the CCR-5 coreceptor is less important for HIV-2 than for HIV-1 and indicate that HIV-2 can use other cell entry pathways and probably other coreceptors. One HIV-2 isolate replicating in normal or CCR-5-negative PBMC failed to infect CXCR-4+ cells or the U87MG-CD4 and sMAGI cell lines, which are permissive to infection by HIV-2 but not by HIV-1. This suggests the existence of several HIV-2-specific coreceptors, which are differentially expressed in cell lines and PBMC.

Activation of nuclear factor kappa B in human neuroblastoma cell lines.

The nuclear factor kappa B (NF-kappa B) is a eukaryotic transcription factor. In B cells and macrophages it is constitutively present in cell nuclei, whereas in many other cell types, NF-kappa B translocates from cytosol to nucleus as a result of transduction by tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF alpha), phorbol ester, and other polyclonal signals. Using neuroblastoma cell lines as models, we have shown that in neural cells NF-kappa B was present in the cytosol and translocated into nuclei as a result of TNF alpha treatment. The TNF alpha-activated NF-kappa B was transcriptionally functional. NF-kappa B activation by TNF alpha was not correlated with cell differentiation or proliferation. However, reagents such as nerve growth factor (NGF) and the phorbol ester phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate (PMA), which induce phenotypical differentiation of the SH-SY5Y neuroblastoma cell line, activated NF-kappa B, but only in that particular cell line. In a NGF-responsive rat pheochromocytoma cell line, PC12, PMA activated NF-kappa B, whereas NGF did not. In other neuroblastoma cell lines, such as SK-N-Be(2), the lack of PMA induction of differentiation was correlated with the lack of NF-kappa B activation. We found, moreover, that in SK-N-Be(2) cells protein kinase C (PKC) enzymatic activity was much lower compared with that in a control cell line and that the low PKC enzymatic activity was due to low PKC protein expression. NF-kappa B was not activated by retinoic acid, which induced morphological differentiation of all the neuroblastoma cell lines used in the present study. Thus, NF-kappa B activation was not required for neuroblastoma cell differentiation. Furthermore, the results obtained with TNF alpha proved that NF-kappa B activation was not sufficient for induction of neuroblastoma differentiation.

Possible role of the V3 domain of gp120 in resistance to an amphotericin B derivative (MS8209) blocking human immunodeficiency virus entry.

MS8209, an amphotericin B derivative blocking human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) entry after CD4 binding, neutralized the HIV-2 strains EHO and ROD10 but not ROD(CEM). In the V3 domain of gp120, ROD(CEM) differed from ROD10 at two positions (a threonine instead of an isoleucine at position 312 and an arginine instead of a glutamine at position 329), and drug resistance was conferred to HIV-1 by substitution of the ROD(CEM) V3 but not the ROD10 V3. V3 mutations may prevent the interaction of gp120 with MS8209 or modify the mechanism of virus entry, rendering it less accessible to neutralization.