Comparison of short-term and medium-term swimming training on cardiodynamics and coronary flow in high salt-induced hypertensive and normotensive rats.

The aim of present study was to evaluate the effects of 3- and 6-week swimming exercise on cardiodynamics and coronary flow in high salt-induced hypertensive and normotensive rats. 80 male Wistar albino rats (6 weeks old) were divided into 8 groups: hypertensive animals that swam for 3 weeks; hypertensive animals that swam for 6 weeks and their respective sedentary controls; normotensive animals that swam for 3 weeks; normotensive animals that swam for 6 weeks and their respective sedentary controls. Hypertensive animals were on high sodium (8% NaCl solution) diet for 4 weeks, and these animals did not drink tap water during the experimental protocol. After sacrificing, hearts were isolated and perfused according to Langendorff technique at gradually increased coronary perfusion pressure (40-120 cmH2O). The following parameters of cardiac function were continuously recorded: maximum and minimum rate of pressure development in LV, systolic, and diastolic left ventricular pressure, and heart rate. Coronary flow was measured flowmetrically. Findings of the present study may help in better understanding of short- to medium-term exercise-induced direct effects on cardiac function and perfusion. Generally viewed, swimming of both durations did not change myocardial function and perfusion in hypertensive and normotensive conditions.

Modification of N-doped TiO2 photocatalysts using noble metals (Pt, Pd) - a combined XPS and DFT study.

Nitrogen-doped TiO2 (N-TiO2) is considered as one of the most promising materials for various photocatalytic applications, while noble metals Pd and Pt are known as good catalysts for hydrogen evolution. This work focuses on the determination of structural and electronic modifications of N-TiO2, achieved by noble metal deposition at the surface, as a starting indicator for potential applications. We focus on the properties of easily synthesized nanocrystalline nitrogen-doped anatase TiO2, modified by depositing small amounts of Pd (0.05 wt%) and Pt (0.10 wt%), aiming to demonstrate efficient enhancement of optical properties. The chemical states of dopants are studied in detail, using X-ray photoemission spectroscopy, to address the potential of N-TiO2 to act as a support for metallic nanoparticles. DFT calculations are used to resolve substitutional from interstitial nitrogen doping of anatase TiO2, as well as to study the combined effect of nitrogen doping and oxygen vacancy formation. Based on the binding energies calculated using Slater's transition state theory, dominant contribution to the N 1s binding energy at 399.8 eV is ascribed to interstitially doped nitrogen in anatase TiO2. Given that both structure and photocatalytic properties depend greatly on the synthesis procedure, this work contributes further to establishing correlation between the structure and optical properties of the noble metal modified N-TiO2 system.

How often absence of palmaris longus and functional deficiencyof flexor digitorum superficialis occurs ?

This study was designed to find a possible correlation between the presence of the palmaris longus and function of the fifth flexor digitorum superficialis. We examined 300 participants to assess the absence of palmaris longus and flexor digitorum superficialis function by several clinical tests. Overall absence of palmaris longus, was seen in 157 participants (52.3%). Overall deficiency of flexor digitorum superficialis was noted in 100 participants (33.3%). In 15 participants (5%) we noted bilateral absence of palmaris longus and flexor digitorum superficialis deficiency. Five participants (1.7%) had unilateral absence of palmaris longus and flexor digitorum superficialis deficiency on the same, left or right hand. Bilaterally presence of these muscles we noted in 95 participants (31.7%). We believe that there is no connection between absent palmaris longus and absent function of flexor digitorum superficialis. We found a much higher prevalence of muscles absence individually and jointly than in other studies.

Evaluation of functional outcome measured by modified Rankin scale in rtPA treated patients with acute ischemic stroke.

Aim of our study was to assess functional outcome measured by modified Rankin scale (mRS) in patients that were treated with thrombolytic therapy-recombinant tissue plasminogen activator (rtPA) after acute ischemic stroke. The study included 100 participants that were treated after acute ischemic stroke. Analyzed parameters included: gender; age groups: age 54 and below (Groupup to-54), 55-64 (Group55-64), 65-74 (Group65-74), and 75 and above (Group75-up); cerebral blood flow (CBF) and cerebral blood volume (CBV). Considering time of rtPA administration, we analyzed 3 groups: between 1-2 hours from stroke onset (Time1-2h), 2-3 hours (Time2-3h) and 3-4.5 hours (Time3h-up). NIHSS scores were analyzed: NIHSS 1-at admission and NIHSS 2-at discharge from hospital; and mRS values: RANKIN 1-at admission and RANKIN 2-at discharge from hospital. There is significant reduction in NIHSS and mRS scores between two measurements for all groups of evaluated parameters. CBF, CBV and NIHSS values at admission significantly correlated with mRS scores at admission (p<0.01), as well as with mRS scores at discharge except for CBF where statistical significance was (p=0.019). Significantly lower values of NIHSS at admission (p<0.01), CBF values (p<0.01) and CBV values (p<0.01) are noticed in the group with mRS≤2. Early induction of rtPA treatment in patients with acute ischemic stroke within first 4.5 hours significantly increases positive treatment outcome in both genders and for all evaluated age groups. Favorable outcome (mRS≤2) at the time of discharge from hospital is significantly associated with lower NIHSS values at admission.

Piloting the integration of SMART Recovery into outpatient alcohol and other drug treatment programs.

BACKGROUND: Research suggests peer support groups can amplify and extend treatment effects and enhance long-term recovery from Alcohol and Other Drug (AOD) problems. However, they are rarely integrated into outpatient treatment programs, resulting in a missed opportunity for peer-to-peer learning, and increased connection to others social networks where people want to reduce or cease substance use. METHOD: In this mixed-methods study, we examined the uptake, participant experiences and impacts of Self-Management and Recovery Training (SMART) when embedded in three public AOD treatment programs in a pilot program in Australia. Groups were delivered initially in-person but transitioned online during the COVID-19 pandemic. RESULTS: A total of 75 SMART Recovery groups were run by the pilot sites, with an average attendance of 6.5 people per meeting. Among Participants (N = 31) who completed the survey, 94% reported benefits relating to substance use (i.e., reduction/ successful maintenance of abstinence), 71% reported improvements in their mental health and wellbeing, 74% reported improvements in their physical health, and 81% reported feeling better connected with others. In-depth qualitative interviews were conducted with 10 participants to explore their experiences. Thematic analysis revealed four themes: motivation to attend, active ingredients, views on the integration of SMART into formal AOD, and the advantages and disadvantages of online groups. CONCLUSION: Taken together, these findings suggest embedding SMART Recovery in AOD treatment is a worthwhile endeavour. This was indicated by a good uptake and evidence of multiple and unique benefits to participants over and above their usual care, notably, better management of their AOD use, health, wellbeing, and sense of connection with others.

Systematic review supports the role of DNA methylation in the pathophysiology of preeclampsia: a call for analytical and methodological standardization.

BACKGROUND: Studies have recently examined the role of epigenetic mechanisms in preeclampsia pathophysiology. One commonly examined epigenetic process is DNA methylation. This heritable epigenetic marker is involved in many important cellular functions. The aim of this study was to establish the association between DNA methylation and preeclampsia and to critically appraise the roles of major study characteristics that can significantly impact the association between DNA methylation and preeclampsia. MAIN BODY: A systematic review was performed by searching PubMed, Web of Science, and EMBASE for original research articles published over time, until May 31, 2019 in English. Eligible studies compared DNA methylation levels in pregnant women with vs. without preeclampsia. Ninety articles were included. Epigenome-wide studies identified hundreds of differentially methylated places/regions in preeclamptic patients. Hypomethylation was the predominant finding in studies analyzing placental tissue (14/19), while hypermethylation was detected in three studies that analyzed maternal white blood cells (3/3). In candidate gene studies, methylation alterations for a number of genes were found to be associated with preeclampsia. A greater number of differentially methylated genes was found when analyzing more severe preeclampsia (70/82), compared to studies analyzing less severe preeclampsia vs. controls (13/27). A high degree of heterogeneity existed among the studies in terms of methodological study characteristics including design (study design, definition of preeclampsia, control group, sample size, confounders), implementation (biological sample, DNA methylation method, purification of DNA extraction, and validation of methylation), analysis (analytical method, batch effect, genotyping, and gene expression), and data presentation (methylation quantification measure, measure of variability, reporting). Based on the results of this review, we provide recommendations for study design and analytical approach for further studies. CONCLUSIONS: The findings from this review support the role of DNA methylation in the pathophysiology of preeclampsia. Establishing field-wide methodological and analytical standards may increase value and reduce waste, allowing researchers to gain additional insights into the role of DNA methylation in the pathophysiology of preeclampsia.

Effects of the inclusion of Equex STM into Tris-based extender on the motility of dog spermatozoa incubated at 5 degrees C.

The aim of this study was to estimate the effects of Equex STM on sperm motion characteristics in chilled dog semen extended in Tris-based diluent. Thirty-two ejaculates were collected from 12 proven German shepherd stud dogs. The sperm-rich fractions were diluted in Tris-based extender with 1% (v/v) Equex STM (sample A) and in Tris-based extender with no addition of detergent (sample B). The extended semen was incubated for 240 h at 5 degrees C and the motility parameters were evaluated by CASA system at 24-h intervals. Addition of Equex STM to Tris-based extender led to an initial activation of motion activity of spermatozoa, followed by a rapid decrease, shortening the lifespan of spermatozoa incubated at 5 degrees C. Computer-assisted sperm analysis clearly showed that Equex STM-induced changes of sperm motion characteristics resemble the hyperactivation (HA) of spermatozoa associated with the capacitation process.

Evaluation of cerebrovascular insult types and their localization in patients due to the presence of elevated body temperature.

BACKGROUND: The Aim of our study was to present and analyze the distribution of cerebrovascular insult types and their localization in patients with normal body temperature by means of computerized tomography, and in those with elevated body temperature by means of neuroradiographic findings. METHODS: In our study we evaluated 103 patients that suffered a cerebrovascular insult and were treated at Special Hospital for Cerebrovascular disorders "Saint Sava" in Belgrade. All patients were divided into two groups due to the presence of elevated body temperature. RESULTS: Fever as a complication in period after acute cerebrovascular insult is presented in almost every fifth patient. In the group of patients with fever, the most common presentation was acute ischemic cerebrovascular insult, namely in 45.63%, while in the group of patients with normal body temperature, the most common presentation was lacunar infarction, namely in 46.60% of participants. The most frequent localization of cerebrovascular insult is in cortex and subcortex regions. CONCLUSIONS: It should be stated that some patients with specific types of cerebrovascular insult as well as their localization are at higher risk for development of complications. This study suggests that appropriate diagnostics as well as prevention and management of in-hospital complications could improve the short-term and long-term prognoses after stroke (Tab. 3, Ref. 14).

The comparison of assessment of pigeon semen motility and sperm concentration by conventional methods and the CASA system (HTM IVOS).

The aim of these experiments was to compare conventional, microscopic methods of evaluating pigeon sperm motility and concentration to those measured by computer-assisted sperm analysis (CASA system). Semen was collected twice a week from two groups of pigeons, each of 40 males (group I: meat-type breed; group II: fancy pigeon) using the lumbo-sacral and cloacal region massage method. Ejaculates collected in each group were diluted 1:100 in BPSE solution and divided into two equal samples. One sample was examined subjectively by microscope and the second one was analysed using CASA system. The sperm concentration was measured by CASA using the anti-collision (AC) system and fluorescent staining (IDENT). There were not any significant differences between the methods of evaluation of sperm concentration. High positive correlations in both groups were observed between the sperm concentration estimated by Thom counting chamber and AC (r=0.87 and r=0.91, respectively), and between the sperm concentration evaluated by Thom counting chamber and IDENT (r=0.85 and r=0.90, respectively). The mean values for CASA measurement of proportion of motile spermatozoa (MOT) and progressive movement (PMOT) were significantly lower than the values estimated subjectively in both groups of pigeons (p< or =0.05 and p< or =0.01, respectively). Positive correlations in MOT and PMOT were noted between both methods of evaluation. The CASA system is very rapid, objective and sensitive method in detecting subtle motility characteristics as well as sperm concentration and is recommended for future research into pigeon semen.

Neuropsychological deficits after bithalamic hemorrhages.

Strategic lesions of the thalamus interfere with cognitive functions and produce complex neuropsychological symptoms. Bilateral, simultaneous thalamic hemorrhages are unusual causes of thalamic dementia. We present clinical, neuropsychological and structural neuroimaging data of a 12-month follow-up period of a patient with bilateral thalamic hemorrhages. After the operation of pancreatitis acuta hemorrhagico-necroticans, the patient developed coma. Computed tomography (CT) and magnetic resonance (MR) of the brain showed medially situated bithalamic hematomas. During the follow-up period, patient's level of consciousness has improved. Moderate dementia (MMSE 20/30) was found with severe temporal and spatial disorientation. Neuropsychological tests showed that attention and concentration were prominently impaired; there were severe verbal and less prominent, visual memory deficits, with anterograde and retrograde amnesia, accompanied by confabulations. Loss of cognitive flexibility and dysexecutive syndrome were also demonstrated. Dynamic apraxia, visual organization and visual construction deficit and impairment of categorial and phonemic fluency were noted. Language was only moderately impaired (anomia). A year later, neuropsychological profile was similar with moderate improvement of retrograde amnesia, whereas anterograde deficits persisted. Neuropsychological syndrome in our patient with bilateral thalamic hemorrhages was characteristic for subcortico-cortical cognitive deficit and was caused by disruption of the cortico-thalamic circuitry.

An alkylpolyglucoside surfactant as a prospective pharmaceutical excipient for topical formulations: the influence of oil polarity on the colloidal structure and hydrocortisone in vitro/in vivo permeation.

There is a growing need for research into new skin- and environment-friendly surfactants. This paper focuses on a natural surfactant of an alkylpolyglucoside type, which can form both thermotropic and lyotropic liquid-crystalline phases. The aim of this study was to relate some physicochemical properties (characterised by polarisation and transmission electron microscopy, thermal analysis and rheology) of the three formulations based on cetearyl glucoside and cetearyl alcohol, to the results of in vitro and in vivo bioavailability of hydrocortisone (HC). The three formulations contained oils of different polarity (medium chain triglycerides: MG, isopropyl myristate: IPM and light liquid paraffin: LP), respectively. In vitro permeation was followed through the artificial skin constructs (ASC), while the parameters measured in vivo were erythema index: EI (using instrumental human skin blanching assay), transepidermal water loss (TEWL) and stratum corneum hydration (SCH). The vehicles based on cetearyl glucoside and cetearyl alcohol showed a complex colloidal structure of lamellar liquid-crystalline and lamellar gel-crystalline type, depending on oil polarity. Rheological profile of the vehicle was directly related to the in vitro profile of the HC permeation. In vivo results suggested that the vehicle with MG retarded the HC permeation, whereas less polar IPM and non-polar LP enhanced it. It is suggested that the enhancement is achieved either by a direct interaction with lipid lamellae of the SC or indirectly by improving skin hydration. There were no adverse effects during in vivo study, which indicates a good safety profile of this alkylpolyglucoside surfactant.

Radial nerve repair using an autologous denatured muscle graft: comparison with outcomes of nerve graft repair.

BACKGROUND: The efficiency of denatured muscle grafting in nerve repair has been confirmed in experimental models and animals. The first clinical trials to repair digital nerves and mixed sensory-motor nerves were encouraging regarding sensory recovery but motor recovery was poor, probably because of delayed repair. We present the functional outcome of repair of motor nerves using denatured muscle graft and compare the results with those using standard nerve graft techniques. METHODS: This prospective study included 9 radial nerve defects repaired with denatured muscle grafts and 23 radial nerve defects repaired using nerve grafts. Missile induced nerve injury, mid-arm level of lesion, a nerve gap smaller than 6 cm, and a preoperative interval of less than 5 months were characteristics shared by all patients. None of the patients had concomitant vascular injury, severe scarring, or significant soft tissue damage in the region of nerve repair. Motor recovery was estimated with 0-5 points, at least 4.7 years after surgery, according to the BMRC scale. RESULTS: A successful outcome (>or=M3) was achieved in 7 out of the 9 patients treated using a muscle graft and in 21 out of the 23 patients treated using nerve grafts (P > 0.05). Excellent recovery and the clinically significant re-establishment of thumb extension (M5 grade) were never achieved in the patients treated using muscle grafts. The average motor score was significantly better in patients treated with nerve grafts than in those who received muscle grafts (3.8 +/- 0.9 and 3.2 +/- 0.8; P = 0.035). With the patients who received muscle grafts, an inverse correlation existed between motor recovery and the length of the nerve gap (P = 0.017). CONCLUSIONS: Denatured muscle grafts can be useful for bridging short radial nerve defects, but the quality of recovery is significantly worse than after nerve graft repair. Even if relatively short nerve defects are bridged with denatured muscle grafts, the outcomes correlate inversely with the length of the gap.

Symmetry of post-movement beta-ERS and motor recovery from stroke: a low-resolution EEG pilot study.

The inter-hemispheric symmetry of electroencephalographic (EEG) post-movement beta-event-related synchronization (PMBS) after movements on a drawing board was studied in eight acute stroke subjects with mild hemiparesis and eight normal subjects. A follow-up testing was conducted 3 months after the initial recordings with a twofold purpose: (1) to validate the reproducibility of the experimental protocol in normal subjects; and (2) to study changes of inter-hemispheric PMBS-symmetry as a response to recovery of motor function. PMBS values were calculated and their topographic distributions illustrated at various time instances following movement offset. Significant PMBS patterns were present in all normal subjects, with only minor differences within consecutive recordings. The side of hemiparesis in acute stroke subjects could be distinguished (P = 0.04) on the basis of the signed symmetry index, a quantitative measure of lateralization. The follow-up testing on three recovered stroke subjects revealed a trend of changes in the lateralization towards the contralateral side of movement, an indication that the cortical organization of movement following recovery turned out as reported for normal subjects. Further clinical investigations need to be carried out to evaluate the relationship between recovery and PMBS symmetry on a large number of subjects, using the method presented here.

Hormonal therapy after the operation for catamenial pneumothorax - is it always necessary?

BACKGROUND: Our recent clinical observations put into question the routine hormonal therapy for pneumothorax recurrence prevention, in patients operated for catamenial pneumothorax (CP). METHODS: Retrospective review of the treatment of four women operated for CP in a recent 32-months period. RESULTS: The four presented patients with CP represent 4.8 % of the overall number of patients operated for spontaneous pneumothorax and 19 % of women operated for pneumothorax in the same period. In all patients, typical multiple diaphragm holes existed. The involved part of the diaphragm was removed with diaphragm suture in three patients, whilst in one patient, a diaphragm placation was done. Endometriosis was histologically confirmed in two patients. During the follow-up period of 6-43 months, none of the patients underwent a postoperative hormonal therapy for different reasons, and in none of them the pneumothorax recurrence occurred. CONCLUSION: The clinical course of these patients, with the absence of the pneumothorax recurrence despite the omission of the hormonal treatment, suggests that the appropriateness of the routine hormonal treatment with gonadotrophin-releasing hormone analogues for 6-12 months, should be reconsidered and re-evaluated in further studies.

Surgical exposures and options for instrumentation in acetabular fracture fixation: Pararectus approach versus the modified Stoppa.

BACKGROUND: As an alternative to the modified Stoppa approach, the Pararectus approach is used clinically for treatment of acetabular fractures involving the anterior column. The current study assessed the surgical exposure and the options for instrumentation using both of these approaches. METHODS: Surgical dissections were conducted on five human cadavers (all male, mean age 88 years (82-97)) using the modified Stoppa and the Pararectus approach, with the same skin incision length (10cm). Distal boundaries of the exposed bony surfaces were marked using a chisel. After removal of all soft-tissues, distances from the boundaries in the false and true pelvis were measured with reference to the pelvic brim. The exposed bone was coloured and calibrated digital images of each inner hemipelvis were taken. The amount of exposed surface using both approaches was assessed and represented as a percentage of the total bony surface of each hemipelvis. For instrumentation, a suprapectineal quadrilateral buttress plate was used. Screw lengths were documented, and three-dimensional CT reconstructions were performed to assess screw trajectories qualitatively. Wilcoxon's signed rank test for paired groups was used (level of significance: p<0.05). RESULTS: After utilization of the Pararectus approach, the distances from the farthest boundaries of exposed bone towards the pelvic brim were significantly higher in the false but not the true pelvis, compared to the modified Stoppa approach. The percentage (mean±SD) of exposed bone accessible after utilizing the Pararectus approach was 42±8%, compared to 29±6% using the modified Stoppa (p=0.011). In cadavers exposed by the Pararectus approach, screws placed for posterior fixation and as a posterior column screw were longer by factor 1.8 and 2.1, respectively (p<0.05), and screws could be placed more posteromedial towards the posterior inferior iliac spine or in line with the posterior column directed towards the ischial tuberosity. CONCLUSION: Compared to the modified Stoppa, the Pararectus approach facilitates a greater surgical access in the false pelvis, provides versatility for fracture fixation in the posterior pelvic ring and allows for the option to extend the approach without a new incision.

The need for implementation of International Commission on Trichinellosis recommendations, quality assurance standards, and proficiency sample programs in meat inspection for trichinellosis in Serbia.

Implementation of methods to control inspection for Trichinella in meat recommended by International Commission on Trichinellosis (ICT), particularly the introduction of the quality assurance standards and proficiency panels for certified analysts is extremely important in Serbia and other countries where Trichinellosis is endemic. In spite of existing regulations, including the inspection of 0.5 g samples of diaphragm by the compression method or by artificial digestion of 1g samples, in Serbia 280 people were diagnosed with clinical trichinellosis after consumption of inspected meat during the period 2001--2002. These outbreaks, which occurred in the municipalities of Kumane, Surcin and Bogatic, were a consequence of inadequate application of inspection methods and insufficient education of some veterinary inspectors. The problem of inadequate veterinary inspection in Serbia can be overcome by strict application of the ICT recommendations for the control of Trichinella with specific emphasis on implementing the quality assurance system (QAS) and proficiency sampling (PS/--PP/panel).

Anti-Trichinella antibodies detected in chronically infected horses by IFA and Western blot, but not by ELISA.

In the Balkan countries, where trichinellosis is a re-emerging zoonosis, it is of great importance to determine Trichinella infection prevalence among the major hosts, including horses. One method for monitoring prevalence is serological surveillance; however, the validity of serological methods in horses is not well understood. The dynamics of anti-Trichinella IgG production and circulating excretory/secretory (ES) antigens were investigated in three horses experimentally-infected with Trichinella spiralis. Horses were slaughtered at 32 week post infection (p.i.). Low worm burdens were found in all three animals. Anti-Trichinella IgG was detected up to 32 weeks p.i. by an indirect immunofluorescence assay (IFA) and by Western blot (Wb), but not by ELISA. The ELISA test detected antibodies for only a short period of time (up to 18 weeks p.i. using ES antigen or up to 20 weeks p.i. using tyvelose-BSA antigen). The presence of circulating muscle larvae ES antigen in sera of infected horses was observed by dot blot from the 4th week p.i. up to the 32nd week p.i.

Hemispheric asymmetries in phonological processing.

In Serbo-Croat, lexical decision to phonologically bivalent letter strings is slowed relative to their phonologically unique counterparts. This feature was exploited in order to assess the linguistic capacity of the two hemispheres. Lexical decision to laterally presented words and pseudowords revealed a right visual field advantage for both males and females in words and pseudowords. But the demands of phonological processing were not met in the same way by the two hemispheres, the two hemispheres did not respond in the same way in the two sexes, and the pattern of these differences was opposite for words and pseudowords.

Modification of the 5' position of purine nucleosides. 2. Synthesis and some cardiovascular properties of adenosine-5'-(N-substituted)carboxamides.

We have shown previously that the esters of adenosine-5'-carboxylic acid (10) represent a new class of potent nontoxic coronary vasodilators. For example, the ethyl ester (12), which is active by an intraduodenal or intravenous route in dogs, causes a large increase in coronary sinus PO2 and coronary blood flow. Because of the pronounced vasoactive properties of the esters of adenosine-5'-carboxylic acid, a systematic study of the corresponding amides (14--50) was undertaken. In addition, several other analogues containing the N1-oxide function (51--52) or 2',3' substituents (3--9, 53--54) were studied.

When nonwords activate semantics better than words.

We conducted a strong test of the idea that visual word processing and the activation of a printed word's meaning proceeds at a rate scaled by the temporal evolution of a unique and stable phonological code. Using the lexical decision task, and readers fluent in the two alphabets of Serbo-Croatian, we compared the priming of a target word such as automat by the semantically related word ROBOT and by the nonword ROBOT. Whereas the Serbo-Croatian word ROBOT can support two phonological codes, /robot/ and /rovot/, the nonword ROBOT composed by illegally mixing Roman and Cyrillic letters can support only the phonological code /robot/, that corresponding to the word whose meaning is related to automat's. At a prime duration of 35 ms, the lexical decision on the target automat was facilitated by ROBOT but not by ROBOT. At a prime duration of 125 ms, the word ROBOT was the more effective prime. One consequence of phonology's leading role in visual word recognition is that a nonword can sometimes activate a given word's meaning better than the word itself.