Assessing vascular effects of adding bevacizumab to neoadjuvant chemotherapy in osteosarcoma using DCE-MRI.

BACKGROUND: The purpose of this study was to assess the impact of bevacizumab alone and in combination with cytotoxic therapy on tumour vasculature in osteosarcoma (OS) using DCE-MRI. METHODS: Six DCE-MRI and three (18)F-FDG PET examinations were scheduled in 42 subjects with newly diagnosed OS to monitor the response to antiangiogenic therapy alone and in combination with cytotoxic therapy before definitive surgery (week 10). Serial DCE-MRI parameters (K(trans), v(p), and v(e)) were examined for correlation with FDG-PET (SUV(max)) and association with drug exposure, and evaluated with clinical outcome. RESULTS: K(trans) (P=0.041) and v(p) (P=0.001) significantly dropped from baseline at 24 h after the first dose of bevacizumab alone, but returned to baseline by 72 h. Greater exposure to bevacizumab was correlated with larger decreases in v(p) at day 5 (P=0.04) and week 10 (P=0.02). A lower K(trans) at week 10 was associated with greater percent necrosis (P=0.024) and longer event-free survival (P=0.034). CONCLUSIONS: This is the first study to demonstrate significant changes of the plasma volume fraction and vascular leakage in OS with bevacizumab alone. The combination of demonstrated associations between drug exposure and imaging metrics, and imaging metrics and patient survival during neoadjuvant therapy, provides a compelling rationale for larger studies using DCE-MRI to assess vascular effects of therapy in OS.

Population Pharmacokinetics of Selumetinib and Its Metabolite N-desmethyl-selumetinib in Adult Patients With Advanced Solid Tumors and Children With Low-Grade Gliomas.

Selumetinib (AZD6244, ARRY-142886), a mitogen activated protein kinases (MEK1 and 2) inhibitor, has been granted orphan drug designation for differentiated thyroid cancer. The primary aim of this analysis was to characterize the population pharmacokinetics of selumetinib and its active metabolite N-desmethyl-selumetinib in patients with cancer. Concentration-time data from adult and pediatric clinical trials were pooled to develop a population pharmacokinetic model using a sequential approach where selumetinib and N-desmethyl-selumetinib data were modeled separately. A sequential zero- and first-order absorption with lag time with a two-compartment model for selumetinib and a two-compartment model for N-desmethyl-selumetinib best described the concentration-time data. Intrapatient variability in absorption was higher than interpatient variability. The apparent drug clearance (CL/F) from the central compartment was 13.5 L/hr (RSE 4.9%). Significant covariates for CL/F were age, alanine aminotransferase, and body surface area. This study confirms that flat dosing is appropriate in adults, whereas body-surface area based dosing should be used in pediatric patients.

Relationship between topotecan systemic exposure and tumor response in human neuroblastoma xenografts.

BACKGROUND: Topotecan is a topoisomerase I inhibitor with activity against xenografts of childhood solid tumors and established clinical activity against neuroblastoma and rhabdomyosarcoma. We have studied the relationship between systemic exposure to and the antitumor activity of topotecan lactone (the active form of the drug) in the xenograft models. Furthermore, we determined whether the responses seen in these models occur at systemic exposure levels that are tolerable in children. METHODS: Neuroblastoma xenografts derived from the tumors of six different patients were established subcutaneously in immune-deprived mice. Topotecan was administered by intravenous bolus injection 5 days a week for 2 consecutive weeks, repeated every 21 days for three cycles. The minimum daily doses that induced complete responses (CRs) and partial responses (PRs) were determined. Topotecan lactone pharmacokinetic studies were performed in both tumor-bearing and nontumor-bearing mice. RESULTS: The minimum doses associated with CRs and PRs in four of the six neuroblastoma xenografts were 0.61 and 0.36 mg/kg body weight, respectively. The topotecan lactone single-day systemic exposures associated with these doses were 88 and 52 ng x hr/mL, respectively. There was an approximately sixfold difference in topotecan lactone systemic exposure (290 ng x hr/mL versus 52 ng x hr/mL) associated with achieving CRs in the least-sensitive and most-sensitive tumors, respectively. CONCLUSIONS: Neuroblastoma xenografts are highly sensitive to topotecan therapy, and responses in mice are achieved at systemic exposures similar to those that are clinically effective and tolerable in children. These results support the concept of deriving preclinical data relating systemic exposure to antitumor activity in xenograft models. Such data may be valuable in making informed decisions regarding the clinical development of new agents.

Prospective evaluation of a model for predicting etoposide plasma protein binding in cancer patients.

Etoposide protein binding in cancer patients is variable and has been related mathematically to a linear model consisting of serum albumin and total bilirubin [percentage unbound = (1.4 x total bilirubin) - (6.8 x albumin) + 34.4]. In this prospective evaluation of the model, plasma samples were obtained following the administration of etoposide in 31 patients, and the unbound percentage (% unbound) of etoposide in plasma was determined by equilibrium dialysis. The mean measured % unbound was 15.3 +/- 11.6 (SD), and the mean model predicted % unbound was 16.7 +/- 10.1. The relation between predicted and measured etoposide % unbound was highly correlated (r2 = 0.92, P = 0.001). The model was precise but with a slight bias toward overpredicting % unbound (mean prediction error, 1.36%; 95% confidence interval, 0.09 to 2.6%). In patients with abnormal total bilirubin (i.e., greater than 1.5 mg/dl) or with hypoalbuminemia (i.e., less than 3.3 g/dl), the model was both precise and unbiased. These results demonstrate that etoposide % unbound can be predicted using serum albumin and total bilirubin. This model should be useful in prospectively identifying patients at increased risk of experiencing altered pharmacological effects due to altered protein binding of etoposide.

Activation of CPT-11 in mice: identification and analysis of a highly effective plasma esterase.

The camptothecin prodrug CPT-11 (irinotecan, 7-ethyl-10-[4-(1-piperidino)-1-piperidino]carbonyloxycamptothecin) is converted by esterases to yield the potent topoisomerase I poison SN-38 (7-ethyl-10-hydroxycamptothecin). Recently, a mouse strain (Es1(e)) has been identified that demonstrates reduced plasma esterase activity, and we have monitored the ability of plasma from these mice to metabolize CPT-11. Total plasma esterase activity was reduced 3-fold in Esl(e)mice in comparison to control mice, and this resulted in a 200-fold reduction in SN-38 production after incubation with CPT-11 in vitro. In addition, pharmacokinetic studies of CPT-11 and SN-38 in these animals demonstrated approximately 5-fold less conversion to SN-38. However, extracts derived from tissues from Es1(e) animals revealed total esterase activities similar to those of control mice, and these extracts metabolized CPT-11 with equal efficiency. Northern analysis of RNA isolated from organs indicated that the liver was the primary source of Es-1 gene expression and that very low levels of Es-1 RNA were present in Es1(e) mice. These results suggest that the reduced levels of Es-1 esterase present in Es1(e) mice are due to down-regulation of gene transcription, and that this plasma esterase is responsible for the majority of CPT-11 metabolism in mice.

Teniposide (VM26) disposition in children with leukemia.

The clinical pharmacokinetics of teniposide (VM-26, NSC 122819) has been studied in 21 children (median age, 4.7 years) with acute lymphocytic leukemia. Teniposide was administered at a dosage of 165 mg/sq m as a 30- to 60-min i.v. infusion. Patients were studied either on the first or second dosage of the drug. Plasma samples were assayed for teniposide and metabolites by high-performance liquid chromatography with electro-chemical detection. Both compartmental and noncompartmental pharmacokinetic analyses were performed. Systemic clearance and apparent volume of distribution of steady state averaged 13.82 +/- 6.0 ml/min/sq m (S.D.) and 7.9 +/- 4.0 liter/sq m, respectively. Univariate and multivariate stepwise regression analyses were used to construct mathematical models to describe the relationships between certain patient-specific demographic and laboratory values and the pharmacokinetic parameters, systemic clearance, elimination rate constant, and area under the concentration-time curve. A significant relationship between serum alkaline phosphatase and systemic clearance, elimination rate constant, and area under the concentration-time curve was found, suggesting that liver function influences the disposition of this anticancer drug in humans.

Translational Pharmacokinetic-Pharmacodynamic Modeling and Simulation: Optimizing 5-Fluorouracil Dosing in Children With Pediatric Ependymoma.

We previously investigated novel therapies for pediatric ependymoma and found 5-fluorouracil (5-FU) i.v. bolus increased survival in a representative mouse model. However, without a quantitative framework to derive clinical dosing recommendations, we devised a translational pharmacokinetic-pharmacodynamic (PK-PD) modeling and simulation approach. Results from our preclinical PK-PD model suggested tumor concentrations exceeded the 1-hour target exposure (in vitro IC90), leading to tumor growth delay and increased survival. Using an adult population PK model, we scaled our preclinical PK-PD model to children. To select a 5-FU dosage for our clinical trial in children with ependymoma, we simulated various 5-FU dosages for tumor exposures and tumor growth inhibition, as well as considering tolerability to bolus 5-FU administration. We developed a pediatric population PK model of bolus 5-FU and simulated tumor exposures for our patients. Simulations for tumor concentrations indicated that all patients would be above the 1-hour target exposure for antitumor effect.

Animal models for studying the action of topoisomerase I targeted drugs.

Almost 30 years after the unsuccessful clinical evaluation of camptothecin sodium, there has been a revival in interest in this class of agent that poisons topoisomerase I. Currently there are four camptothecin analogues in clinical trials each at different levels of advancement. Clinical data suggest that patterns of antitumor activity and toxicity profiles differ between analogues. In preclinical models antitumor activity appears to be highly schedule-dependent. Here we review rodent and human tumor models used in evaluation of efficacy, and models used to predict toxicities of these compounds. The major limitation of rodent models is that the mouse tolerates significantly greater systemic exposure to each camptothecin analogue than do patients. This leads to a false overprediction of potential clinical activity. However, responses of human tumor xenografts in mice are highly predictive of responses of clinical cancer when camptothecins are administered at dose levels achieving similar systemic exposure in mice. Development of assays that identify analogues that maintain therapeutic activity in mice, but have less species differential toxicity, particularly to the hematopoietic system, may provide an early screen to select compounds having greater clinical utility.

Changes in the clearance of total and unbound etoposide in patients with liver dysfunction.

The disposition of total and non-protein-bound etoposide was investigated in 21 cancer patients receiving etoposide and cisplatin combination chemotherapy. Etoposide plasma concentrations were determined using a specific high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) method, and etoposide plasma protein binding was determined by equilibrium dialysis. The patients had a wide range of renal function (creatinine clearance, 32 to 159 mL/min/m2) and hepatic function (total bilirubin range, 0.3 to 21.5 mg/dL; aspartate aminotransferase [AST] range, 14 to 415 IU/L; serum albumin range, 2.7 to 4.1 g/dL). The mean etoposide total systemic clearance was not different in 15 patients with total bilirubin less than 1.0 mg/dL versus six patients with total bilirubin 1.1 to 21.5 mg/dL (18.7 +/- 5.9 mL/min/m2 v 26.4 +/- 10.7 mL/min/m2; t-test P = .06), with a trend toward higher total clearance in the patients with abnormal bilirubin values. However, the mean clearance of unbound etoposide was significantly lower in patients with increased total bilirubin (220 +/- 90 mL/min/m2 v 135 +/- 61 mL/min/m2; t-test P = .027). The fraction of etoposide unbound (fu) in plasma was significantly higher in patients with increased bilirubin (9% +/- 3% v 27% +/- 15%; t-test P = .002), explaining the trend toward higher total clearance in these patients. Etoposide clearance (total or unbound) in the 14 patients with measurable hepatic metastases was not different from the clearance in the seven patients without hepatic metastases. This study provides an explanation for why patients with increased bilirubin do not have lower total systemic clearance of etoposide, and indicates that such patients have a higher exposure to unbound etoposide. The results of ongoing pharmacodynamic studies of total and unbound etoposide in patients with increased bilirubin will determine the clinical relevance of altered etoposide protein binding.

Clinical pharmacodynamics of continuous infusion topotecan in children: systemic exposure predicts hematologic toxicity.

PURPOSE: Topotecan pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics were studied following a 72-hour continuous infusion in 20 children with cancer (median age, 8 years; range, 3.5 to 18). METHODS: Serial plasma and urine samples were collected during the infusion and for up to 6 hours following the end of infusion. Topotecan (lactone) and total (lactone plus hydroxy acid) concentrations were determined by a sensitive and specific high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) assay with fluorescence detection. Using maximum a posteriori-Bayesian modeling, lactone and total plasma concentrations were described separately by a two-compartment model. Hematologic toxicity was expressed as the percent decrease in absolute neutrophil count (ANC) and platelet count. The relation between systemic exposure (SE) and hematologic toxicity was modeled using a sigmoid maximum-effect model. RESULTS: Systemic clearance rates for lactone and total topotecan were (mean +/- SD) 18.5 +/- 7.0 and 6.5 +/- 2.4 L/h/m2, respectively. Urinary recovery of total topotecan was (mean +/- SD) 67.5% +/- 25.2% (n = 12 patients). SE (area under the concentration-time curve from zero to infinity [AUC] or steady-state plasma concentration [Cpss]) to either topotecan lactone or total topotecan was significantly correlated to hematologic toxicity (P < .05). Overall, patients with a higher SE to topotecan experienced greater hematologic toxicity. CONCLUSION: These data demonstrate a relation between systemic exposure to topotecan and clinical effect (myelosuppression). Moreover, these data provide the basis for development of individualized topotecan administration schedules.

Escalating systemic exposure of continuous infusion topotecan in children with recurrent acute leukemia.

PURPOSE: To determine the maximum-tolerated systemic exposure (MTSE) and exposure-limiting toxicity of continuous infusion topotecan in children with recurrent acute leukemia. PATIENTS AND METHODS: Patients received escalating levels of topotecan systemic exposure as measured by steady-state topotecan lactone concentration (Css). Samples obtained within the first 24 hours were measured by high-pressure liquid chromatography (HPLC) for topotecan. A two-compartment model was fit to the data using a Bayesian algorithm. Css was calculated for each patient; if it differed by more than 20% of target, a new dosage was begun within 6 hours. Follow-up concentrations were obtained as well as serial plasma samples postinfusion. Toxicity and evidence of activity were assessed after each course. RESULTS: Thirteen boys and five girls received 23 courses of topotecan. Target Css ranged from 1.0 to 5.3 ng/mL (topotecan doses, 0.5 to 3.3 mg/m2/d). Nineteen of 23 courses were within +/- 20% of target after adjustment (range, 77% to 139%). The MTSE was 4.0 ng/mL, and mucositis was exposure-limiting at 5.3 ng/mL. A significant relation between topotecan lactone Css and the severity of mucositis was observed. Myelosuppression was experienced but was not considered exposure-limiting. One complete response and one partial response were noted. CONCLUSION: The MTSE for continuous infusion topotecan was 4.0 ng/mL. Responses were noted at Css comparable to those producing responses in a severe combined immunodeficiency (SCID) mouse model. Further studies of topotecan are warranted.

The effect of prior cisplatin therapy on the pharmacokinetics of high-dose methotrexate.

The pharmacokinetics of high-dose methotrexate (MTX, 5-15 g/m2) were evaluated in 11 children and adolescents who had previously received two to eight doses of cisplatin (90 mg/m2) in the treatment of malignant solid tumors. The half-life for disappearance of MTX from serum during the first 24 hours after infusion was determined from serum samples obtained at the end of a six-hour infusion and six, 12, and 24 hours after infusion. These values were compared to a mean half-life of 2.83 (+/- 0.34) hours following 489 courses administered to 71 patients who had not received cisplatin. Stepwise multiple linear regression analysis of patient variables revealed cumulative cisplatin dosage and time from last cisplatin dose as the best predictors of MTX half-life (r2 = 65.4%, p less than 0.001). The best predictors of 24-hour serum concentration were cumulative cisplatin dosage and MTX dosage (r2 = 54.2%, p less than 0.001) in the multiple linear regression model. Patients with delayed MTX clearance received additional leucovorin and experienced no severe toxicity. Patients receiving up to 270 mg/m2 of cisplatin appear to have minimal increases in MTX half-life, while the likelihood of delayed clearance increases in patients who have received 360 mg/m2 or more of cisplatin. All patients who have previously received cisplatin should be treated cautiously with high-dose MTX and prospective pharmacokinetic monitoring should be routinely performed.

Phase I study of topotecan in combination with cyclophosphamide in pediatric patients with malignant solid tumors: a Pediatric Oncology Group Study.

PURPOSE: To determine the maximum-tolerated dose (MTD) and dose-limiting toxicity of topotecan when combined with cyclophosphamide in pediatric patients with recurrent or refractory malignant solid tumors. PATIENTS AND METHODS: A total of 33 patients received cyclophosphamide (250 mg/m2/dose) followed by topotecan in escalating doses (0.6 to 0.75 mg/m2/dose), each given as a 30-minute infusion daily for 5 days. A total of 154 fully assessable treatment courses were given to these patients. RESULTS: Neutropenia was the dose-limiting toxicity of the therapy at both topotecan dose levels. The addition of filgrastim allowed escalation of the topotecan dose to the 0.75-mg/m2 level with acceptable neutropenia. Other significant toxicities were anemia and thrombocytopenia. Nonhematopoietic toxicity of grades > or = 3 was not observed. Responses were reported in patients with Wilms' tumor (one complete response [CR], one partial response [PR]), neuroblastoma (one CR, one PR), rhabdomyosarcoma (one PR), and osteosarcoma (one PR). Pharmacokinetic studies indicate that cyclophosphamide administered on the schedule used in this study did not alter topotecan disposition on day 5. As with previous studies, a pharmacodynamic relation between systemic exposure and myelosuppression was noted. CONCLUSION: The combination of topotecan and cyclophosphamide shows activity in a wide variety of pediatric solid tumors and can be given with acceptable hematopoietic toxicity with the use of filgrastim support. We recommend that pediatric phase II trials use cyclophosphamide 250 mg/m2 followed by topotecan 0.75 mg/m2 daily for 5 days with filgrastim for amelioration of neutropenia.

Direct translation of a protracted irinotecan schedule from a xenograft model to a phase I trial in children.

PURPOSE: In a preclinical model of neuroblastoma, administration of irinotecan daily 5 days per week for 2 consecutive weeks ([qd x 5] x 2) resulted in greater antitumor activity than did a single 5-day course with the same total dose. We evaluated this protracted schedule in children. PATIENTS AND METHODS: Twenty-three children with refractory solid tumors were enrolled onto a phase I study. Cohorts received irinotecan by 1-hour intravenous infusion at 20, 24, or 29 mg/m(2) (qd x 5) x 2 every 21 days. RESULTS: The 23 children (median age, 14.1 years; median prior regimens, two) received 84 courses. Predominant diagnoses were neuroblastoma (n = 5), osteosarcoma (n = 5), and rhabdomyosarcoma (n = 4). The dose-limiting toxicity was grade 3/4 diarrhea and/or abdominal cramps in six of 12 patients treated at 24 mg/m(2), despite aggressive use of loperamide. The maximum-tolerated dose (MTD) on this schedule was 20 mg/m(2)/d. Five patients had partial responses and 16 had disease stabilization. On day 1, the median systemic exposure to SN-38 (the active metabolite of irinotecan) at the MTD was 106 ng-h/mL (range, 41 to 421 ng-h/mL). CONCLUSION: This protracted schedule is well tolerated in children. The absence of significant myelosuppression and encouraging clinical responses suggest compellingly that irinotecan be further evaluated in children using the (qd x 5) x 2 schedule, beginning at a dose of 20 mg/m(2). These results imply that data obtained from xenograft models can be effectively integrated into the design of clinical trials.

Potentiation of 5-fluorouracil-leucovorin activity by alpha2a-interferon in colon adenocarcinoma xenografts.

Previous studies using cultured colon adenocarcinoma cells demonstrated that a mixture of the diastereoiosomers of the biologically active (6S) and inactive (6R) forms of (6RS) leucovorin or 5-formyl-H4PteGlu (LV) and recombinant human alpha2a-interferon (rIFN-alpha2a) in combination significantly increased the cytotoxicity of 5-fluorouracil (FUra) (by 10-14-fold) whereas FUra combined with single modulators was less potentiated (3-fold). Maximum cytotoxicity was achieved with 48-h drug exposures when drugs were applied continuously, and modulatory rIFN-alpha2a concentrations were obtained at >/=50 International units (IU)/ml. We therefore examined whether such interactions could occur in vivo using HxGC3/c1TK-c3 colon adenocarcinoma xenografts, deficient in thymidine salvage. Potentiation of FUra activity was significantly greater when FUra was combined with both LV and rIFN-alpha2a in comparison to the use of single modulators using a 5-day schedule for 3 courses. In mice receiving LV, the maximum level of potentiation of FUra-induced growth inhibition was independent of the rIFN-alpha2a dose between 25,000 and 600,000 IU examined in contrast to rIFN-alpha2a used as a single modulator. After administration of 25,000 IU rIFN-alpha2a, plasma rIFN-alpha2a concentrations >/=50 IU/ml were maintained for 6-8 h, comparable to exposure times achievable clinically. Data indicate that intermittent rIFN-alpha2a exposure potentiates FUra-LV activity in vivo. The efficacy of FUra combined with dual versus single modulators will thus be of importance to evaluate in randomized phase III clinical trials in patients with colorectal cancer.

Relation between 9-aminocamptothecin systemic exposure and tumor response in human solid tumor xenografts.

9-Aminocamptothecin (9-AC) is a topoisomerase I inhibitor with activity against xenografts from childhood solid tumors; however, clinical trials with this compound have been disappointing, resulting in discontinuation of further development. The objectives of this study were to evaluate the antitumor activity of 9-AC in a panel of pediatric solid tumor xenografts and to relate the 9-AC lactone systemic exposure, defined as area under the concentration time curve (AUC), to the antitumor dose associated with tumor regression in the xenograft model. We evaluated protracted administration of i.v. and oral therapies (daily times 5) for 1, 2, or 3 weeks and for 1 or 3 cycles. The minimum effective dose of 9-AC causing objective regression of advanced tumors was determined for each schedule. 9-AC lactone plasma concentration-time profiles associated with the lowest dose achieving complete and partial responses for each xenograft were then determined for each regimen. Tumors were highly sensitive to 9-AC therapy, but the systemic exposure required for antitumor effect is in excess of that achievable in patients.

Antitumor activity of temozolomide combined with irinotecan is partly independent of O6-methylguanine-DNA methyltransferase and mismatch repair phenotypes in xenograft models.

The activity of temozolomide combined with irinotecan (CPT-11) was evaluated against eight independent xenografts (four neuroblastomas, three rhabdomyosarcomas, and one glioblastoma). In all studies, temozolomide was administered p.o. daily for 5 consecutive days/cycle, found in preliminary studies to be the optimal schedule for administration. Irinotecan was administered i.v. for 5 days for 2 consecutive weeks/cycle. Treatment cycles were repeated every 21 days for a total of three cycles over 8 weeks. In combination, temozolomide and CPT-11 induced complete responses in four neuroblastomas, two rhabdomyosarcomas, and the glioblastoma line. The activity of the combination was significantly greater than the activity of either agent administered alone in four tumor lines. Of interest, the interaction appeared independent of tumor MGMT or mismatch repair phenotype, suggesting that the mechanism of synergy may be independent of O6-methylation by temozolomide. Pharmacokinetic studies indicated no detectable interaction between these two agents. Further, coadministration of CPT-11 appeared to reduce the toxicity of temozolomide in tumor-bearing mice.

Phenytoin alters the disposition of topotecan and N-desmethyl topotecan in a patient with medulloblastoma.

Topotecan undergoes both renal and hepatic elimination, with topotecan urinary recovery ranging from 60 to 70%. We evaluated the potential of phenytoin to alter the disposition of topotecan and its N-desmethyl metabolite. A 5-year-old child with high-risk medulloblastoma received the first course of topotecan with phenytoin and the second course without phenytoin. For both courses, topotecan doses were adjusted to achieve a target topotecan lactone plasma area under the curve (AUC). Serial plasma samples were obtained, and lactone and total plasma concentrations of topotecan, as well as total plasma and cerebrospinal fluid concentrations of N-desmethyl topotecan, were measured by high-performance liquid chromatography. Phenytoin coadministration increased lactone and total topotecan clearance from 43.4 +/- 1.9 L/h/m2 to 62.9 +/- 6.4 L/h/m2, and 20.8 +/- 2.8 L/h/m2 to 30.6 +/- 4.1 L/h/m2, respectively (P < 0.05). Concomitant phenytoin increased the plasma AUC of total N-desmethyl topotecan from 7.5 +/- 0.68 ng/ml x h to 16.3 +/- 0.53 ng/ml x h (P < 0.05) at plasma AUC of total topotecan of 226.0 +/- 5.5 ng/ml x h and 240.9 +/- 39.8 ng/ml x h, respectively. N-Desmethyl topotecan penetrated into the cerebrospinal fluid (0.12 +/- 0.01). The patient experienced no grade 3 or 4 toxicity. These are the first data documenting altered topotecan and N-desmethyl topotecan disposition when coadministered with phenytoin and suggests that topotecan may undergo further hepatic metabolism. Although there is an increase in exposure to the active N-desmethyl topotecan metabolite, it is less than the decrease in exposure to topotecan lactone. Therefore, patients concomitantly administered phenytoin may require an increase in topotecan dose to achieve a similar pharmacological effect as a patient not receiving phenytoin.

Biochemical correlates of temozolomide sensitivity in pediatric solid tumor xenograft models.

The antitumor activity of the methylating agent temozolomide has been evaluated against a panel of 17 xenografts derived from pediatric solid tumors. Temozolomide was administered p.o. daily for five consecutive days at a dose level of 66 mg/kg. Courses of treatment were repeated every 21 days for three cycles. Tumor lines were classified as having high, intermediate, or low sensitivity, determined by complete responses, partial responses, or stable disease, respectively. Overall, temozolomide induced complete responses in five lines and partial responses in three additional tumor lines, giving objective regressions in 47% of xenograft lines. Analysis of temozolomide plasma systemic exposure indicated that this dose level was relevant to exposure achieved in patients. Tumors were analyzed by immunoblotting for levels of O6-methylguanine-DNA methyltransferase (MGMT) and two mismatch repair proteins, MLH-1 and MSH-2. Tumors classified as having high or intermediate sensitivity had low or undetectable MGMT and expressed detectable MLH-1 and MSH-2 proteins. Tumors classified as having low sensitivity had either (a) high MGMT or (b) low or undetectable MGMT but were deficient in MLH-1. The relationship between p53 and response to temozolomide was also examined. In vitro temozolomide did not induce p21cip1 in p53-competent NB-1643 neuroblastoma cells. Suppression of p53 function in NB1643 clones through stable expression of a trans dominant negative p53 (NB1643p53TDN) did not confer temozolomide resistance. Similarly, tumor sensitivity to temozolomide did not segregate with p53 genotype or p53 functional status. These results indicate that MGMT is the primary mechanism for temozolomide resistance, but in the absence of MGMT, proficient mismatch repair determines sensitivity to this agent.

Efficacy of systemic administration of irinotecan against neuroblastoma xenografts.

The efficacy of the topoisomerase I inhibitor 7-ethyl-10-(4-[1-piperidino]-1-piperidino)-carbonyloxy-camptotheci n (irinotecan, CPT-11) has been examined against a panel of six independently derived neuroblastoma xenografts. Intensive courses of therapy, where irinotecan was administered i.v. daily 5 days per week for two consecutive weeks [(dx5)2; defined as 1 cycle], were compared to more protracted low-dose schedules where cycles were repeated every 21 days for a total of three courses ¿abbreviated [(dx5)2]3¿. When administered (dx5)2 for a single cycle, the maximum tolerated daily dose was 40 mg/kg. Irinotecan induced a high frequency of complete regressions (CRs) in four of the six lines examined; however, most tumors achieving CR regrew during the period of observation (12 weeks). Furthermore, there was no advantage in high-dose regimens as compared to low dose (10 mg/kg) on the same schedule. Protracted schedules of administration, where three courses of therapy were given at 21-day intervals ¿[(dx5)2]3¿ i.v. were examined at 10 and 5 mg/kg/dose. Even at the lower dose level, irinotecan caused 100% CR in all tumor lines that were maintained at 12 weeks. To determine the minimum dose levels required to induce objective regressions of neuroblastoma xenografts, decreasing doses were examined using the [(dx5)2]3 i.v. schedule. At 2.5 mg/kg/dose, >90% of NB-1643, NB-1691, NB-1382.2, and NB-EB xenografts demonstrated CR, whereas at 1.25 mg/kg/dose, all six tumor lines evaluated demonstrated objective regressions (>/=50% volume reduction), with a high frequency of CRs in four tumor lines. The 10-hydroxy-7-ethyl CPT lactone single-day systemic exposure measured with the minimum dose (2.5 mg/kg) associated with complete response was 198, 257, and 228 ng.h/ml for mice bearing NB-1643, NB-1691, and NB-EB tumors, respectively. These results indicate that childhood neuroblastoma xenografts are highly sensitive to irinotecan given by parenteral administration, and that efficacy is schedule dependent.