Occurrence and Mass Loading of Synthetic Opioids, Synthetic Cathinones, and Synthetic Cannabinoids in Wastewater Treatment Plants in Four U.S. Communities.

A few new psychoactive substances (NPS) that mimic the effects of controlled neuropsychiatric and illicit drugs have been forensically identified in the U.S. Wastewater-based epidemiology (WBE) can provide a comprehensive and more cost- and time-effective method of determining the prevalence of NPSs in communities. In this study, an analytical method capable of simultaneous determination of trace-level 40 NPS residues (synthetic opioids, synthetic cannabinoids, synthetic cathinones, piperazines, indole, and amphetamine) in wastewater was developed and validated. The developed analytical method was utilized to determine the occurrence of NPSs in four rural communities in southern Illinois. Nine NPSs (carfentanil, furanyl fentanyl, methoxyacetyl fentanyl, MAB-CHMINACA, methcathinone, 4-methyl pentedrone, 2-methyl-4'-(methylthio)-2-morpholinopropiophenone (MMMP), 1-(3-chlorophenyl) piperazine (mCPP), and 5-(2-Aminopropyl) Indole (5IT) were quantified. Methcathinone was the most frequently detected NPS (detection frequency, df = 100%) followed closely by the MMMP and mCPP (df = 91%). The mass loading of methcathinone, mCPP, and 5-IT using ammoniacal nitrogen-based population were up to 21.1 ± 1.3 mg/d/1000 people, 15.0 ± 0.5 mg/d/1000 people, and 9.75 ± 2.72 mg/d/1000 people, respectively. This is the first study to determine the occurrence of NPSs including synthetic opioids, synthetic cannabinoids, synthetic cathinones, and piperazines in the U.S. communities.

A review of the occurrence of pharmaceuticals and personal care products in Indian water bodies.

Little information exists on the occurrence and the ultimate fate of pharmaceuticals in the water bodies in India despite being one of the world leaders in pharmaceutical production and consumption. This paper has reviewed 19 published reports of pharmaceutical occurrence in the aquatic environment in India [conventional activated sludge wastewater treatment plants (WTPs), hospital WTPs, rivers, and groundwater]. Carbamazepine (antipsychoactive), atenolol (antihypertensive), triclocarban and triclosan (antimicrobials), trimethoprim and sulfamethoxazole (antibacterials), ibuprofen and acetaminophen (analgesics), and caffeine (stimulant) are the most commonly detected at higher concentrations in Indian WTPs that treat predominantly the domestic sewage. The concentration of ciprofloxacin, sulfamethoxazole, amoxicillin, norfloxacin, and ofloxacin in Indian WTPs were up to 40 times higher than that in other countries in Europe, Australia, Asia, and North America. A very few studies in Indian rivers reported the presence of ciprofloxacin, enoxacin, ketoprofen, erythromycin, naproxen, ibuprofen, diclofenac and enrofloxacin. Similar compounds were reported in rivers in China, indicating a similar usage pattern in both of these developing countries. In a study reported from an open well in southern India, the groundwater showed the presence of cetirizine, ciprofloxacin, enoxacin, citalopram and terbinafine, which was close to a WTP receiving effluents from pharmaceutical production.

Assessment of Surface Water Contamination from Coalbed Methane Fracturing-Derived Volatile Contaminants in Sullivan County, Indiana, USA.

There is a growing concern over the contamination of surface water and the associated environmental and public health consequences from the recent proliferation of hydraulic fracturing in the USA. Petroleum hydrocarbon-derived contaminants of concern [benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene, and xylenes (BTEX)] and various dissolved cations and anions were spatially determined in surface waters around 15 coalbed methane fracking wells in Sullivan County, IN, USA. At least one BTEX compound was detected in 69% of sampling sites (n = 13) and 23% of sampling sites were found to be contaminated with all of the BTEX compounds. Toluene was the most common BTEX compound detected across all sampling sites, both upstream and downstream from coalbed methane fracking wells. The average concentration of toluene at a reservoir and its outlet nearby the fracking wells was ~2× higher than other downstream sites. However, one of the upstream sites was found to be contaminated with BTEX at similar concentrations as in a reservoir site nearby the fracking well. Calcium (~60 ppm) and sulfates (~175 ppm) were the dominant cations and anions, respectively, in surface water around the fracking sites. This study represents the first report of BTEX contamination in surface water from coalbed methane hydraulic fracturing wells.

Fate of artificial sweeteners in wastewater treatment plants in New York State, U.S.A.

Very few studies describe the fate of artificial sweeteners (ASWs) in wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs). In this study, mass loadings, removal efficiencies, and environmental emission of sucralose, saccharin, aspartame, and acesulfame were determined based on the concentrations measured in wastewater influent, primary effluent, effluent, suspended particulate matter (SPM), and sludge collected from two WWTPs in the Albany area of New York State, U.S.A. All ASWs were detected at a mean concentration that ranged from 0.13 (aspartame) to 29.4 µg/L (sucralose) in wastewater influent, 0.49 (aspartame) to 27.7 µg/L (sucralose) in primary influent, 0.11 (aspartame) to 29.6 µg/L (sucralose) in effluent, and from 0.08 (aspartame) to 0.65 µg/g dw (sucralose) in sludge. Aspartame was found in 92% of influent SPM samples at a mean concentration of 444 ng/g dw, followed by acesulfame (92 ng/g) and saccharin (49 ng/g). The fraction of the total mass of ASWs sorbed to SPM was in the rank order: aspartame (50.4%) > acesulfame (10.9%) > saccharin and sucralose (0.8%). The sorption coefficients of ASWs ranged from 4.10 (saccharin) to 4540 L/kg (aspartame). Significant removal of aspartame (68.2%) and saccharin (90.3%) was found in WWTPs; however, sucralose and acesulfame were less efficiently removed (<2.0%). The total mass loading of sucralose, saccharin, and acesulfame in the WWTP that served a smaller population (∼15,000) was 1.3-1.5 times lower than that in another WWTP that served a larger population (∼100,000). The average daily loading of sucralose in both WWTPs (18.5 g/d/1000 people) was ∼2 times higher than the average loading of saccharin. The daily discharge of sucralose from the WWTPs was the highest (17.6 g/d/1000 people), followed by acesulfame (1.22 g/d/1000 people), and saccharin (1.07 g/d/1000 people). Approximately, 1180 g of saccharin and 291 g of acesulfame were transformed in or removed daily from the two WWTPs. This is the first study to describe the fate of ASWs, including the fraction found in SPM and in sludge, in addition to the aqueous portion of wastewater in WWTPs.

Mass loading and removal of select illicit drugs in two wastewater treatment plants in New York State and estimation of illicit drug usage in communities through wastewater analysis.

Sewage epidemiology is a rapidly expanding field that can provide information on illicit drug usage in communities, based on the measured concentrations in samples from wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs). In this study, select illicit drugs (six drugs and eight metabolites) were determined on a daily basis for a week in wastewater, suspended particulate matter (SPM), and sludge from two WWTPs in the Albany area in New York State. The WWTP that served a larger population (∼100 000, with a flow rate of 83 300 m(3)/d) showed 3.2 (methadone) to 51 (3,4-methylenedioxyamphetamine; MDA) times higher mass flows of illicit drugs than did the WWTP that served a smaller population (∼15 000, with a flow rate of 6850 m(3)/d). The consumption rate of target illicit drugs in the communities served by the two WWTPs was estimated to range from 1.67 to 3510 mg/d/1000 people. Between the dissolved and particulate phases, the fraction of methadone, 2-ethylidene-1,5-dimethyl-3,3-diphenylpyrrolidine (EDDP), amphetamine, and MDA sorbed to SPM ranged from 34.3% to 41.1% of the total mass in the waste stream. The removal efficiencies of illicit drugs from the two WWTPs ranged from 4% (norcocaine) to 99% (cocaine); however, methamphetamine, methadone, and EDDP showed a negative removal in WWTPs. The environmental emission of illicit drugs from WWTP discharges was calculated to range from 0.38 (MDEA) to 67.5 (EDDP) mg/d/1000 people. Other markers such as caffeine, paraxanthine, nicotine, and cotinine were found to predict the concentrations of select illicit drugs in raw wastewater (r(2) = 0.20-0.79; p ≤ 0.029).

Retrospective monitoring of persistent organic pollutants, including PCBs, PBDEs, and polycyclic musks in blue mussels (Mytilus edulis) and sediments from New Bedford Harbor, Massachusetts, USA: 1991-2005.

Blue mussels (Mytilus edulis) and sediments collected from 1991 to 2005 from New Bedford Harbor (NBH), MA, were analyzed for two polycyclic musks (HHCB or Galaxolide® and AHTN or Tonalide®), polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs), polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), and organochlorine pesticides (OCPs). HHCB and AHTN were found in mussel tissues at mean concentrations of 836 and 376 ng/g lipid weight (lw), respectively, which were two- to seven-fold higher than those found at a reference site. Mean concentrations of HHCB and AHTN in NBH sediments were 12 and 6.3 ng/g dry weight (dw), respectively. Four- and five-ringed PAHs, such as phenanthrene, anthracene, fluoranthene, and pyrene, collectively accounted for 61 % of the ∑PAHs concentrations in mussels from NBH. Mean ΣPCB concentrations in mussels from upper and lower NBH were 942 and 182 µg/g lw, respectively, and were dominated by tetra- and penta-chlorobiphenyl congeners, collectively accounting for 61 % of the ΣPCB concentrations. The mean concentration of ∑PBDEs in mussels from NBH was 277 ng/g lw, and no significant difference existed in the concentrations between upper and lower NBH. DDTs were the major OCP found in mussels, found at a mean concentration of 778 ng/g lw. The concentrations of HHCB, AHTN, ΣPBDEs, ΣPAHs, and DDTs in mussels decreased significantly (r (2) ≥ 0.56, p ≤ 0.052) from 1991 to 2005. The concentrations of PCBs and chlordanes did not exhibit a decreasing trend in mussel tissues (r (2) < 0.50; p > 0.076) from 1991 to 2005. Based on the temporal trends in the concentrations of HHCB, AHTN, ∑PAHs, and ∑PBDEs found in mussels from NBH, it was estimated that between 5.5 and 12 years were required for the concentrations of these compounds to decrease by half (i.e., environmental halving time) of the levels found in 1991.

Selective pressurized liquid extraction technique capable of analyzing dioxins, furans, and PCBs in clams and crab tissue.

A selective pressurized liquid extraction technique (SPLE) was developed for the analysis of polychlorodibenzo-p-dioxins, polychlorodibenzofurans (PCDD/Fs) and dioxin-like polychlorobiphenyls (dl-PCBs) in clam and crab tissue. The SPLE incorporated multiple cleanup adsorbents (alumina, florisil, silica gel, celite, and carbopack) within the extraction cell. Tissue extracts were analyzed by high resolution gas chromatography coupled with electron capture negative ionization mass spectrometry. Mean recovery (n = 3) and percent relative standard deviation for PCDD/Fs and dl-PCBs in clam and crabs was 89 ± 2.3 and 85 ± 4.0, respectively. The SPLE method was applied to clams and crabs collected from the San Jacinto River Waste Pits, a Superfund site in Houston, TX. The dl-PCBs concentrations in clams and crabs ranged from 50 to 2,450 and 5 to 800 ng/g ww, respectively. Sample preparation time and solvents were reduced by 92 % and 65 %, respectively, as compared to USEPA method 1613.

Wastewater Surveillance for Xylazine in Kentucky.

Introduction: In the U.S., xylazine, the veterinary non-opioid sedative, has emerged as a major threat to people who use illicitly manufactured fentanyl and other drugs. The aim of this study was to compare wastewater detection of xylazine with other public health and safety surveillance data from 2019 to 2023 in Kentucky. Methods: Wastewater samples from 5 rest areas, 2 truck weigh stations, and 4 wastewater treatment plants were tested for xylazine. Wastewater xylazine positivity rates were compared with xylazine-positive submission rates from the National Forensic Laboratory Information System and Kentucky's fatal overdoses in 6-month periods (Period 1=January-June; Period 2=July-December). Results: Xylazine was detected in 61.6% (424 of 688) of daily wastewater samples from roadway sites/wastewater treatment plants. For roadways, detection increased from 55% (Period 1, 2021) to 94% (Period 1, 2023), and wastewater treatment plants had an overall detection of 25.8% (n=66 samples, Periods 1 and 2, 2022). Increasing roadway positivity corresponded to trends in National Forensic Laboratory Information System xylazine-positive submission rates: from 0.19 per 1,000 submissions (Period 1, 2019) to 2.9 per 1,000 (Period 2, 2022, latest available). No deaths from xylazine were reported publicly in Kentucky, although this study's authors identified 1-4 deaths (true count suppressed) in the overdose surveillance system, which, in back-of-the-envelope comparisons with other states, is far fewer than expected. Conclusions: Wastewater signals indicate broad geographic exposure to xylazine in Kentucky, yet health outcomes data suggest otherwise. These findings may inform regional, national, and international efforts to incorporate wastewater-based drug surveillance. Harm-reduction activities along roadways and other suitable locations may be needed.

Workflow to facilitate the detection of new psychoactive substances and drugs of abuse in influent urban wastewater.

The complexity around the dynamic markets for new psychoactive substances (NPS) forces researchers to develop and apply innovative analytical strategies to detect and identify them in influent urban wastewater. In this work a comprehensive suspect screening workflow following liquid chromatography - high resolution mass spectrometry analysis was established utilising the open-source InSpectra data processing platform and the HighResNPS library. In total, 278 urban influent wastewater samples from 47 sites in 16 countries were collected to investigate the presence of NPS and other drugs of abuse. A total of 50 compounds were detected in samples from at least one site. Most compounds found were prescription drugs such as gabapentin (detection frequency 79%), codeine (40%) and pregabalin (15%). However, cocaine was the most found illicit drug (83%), in all countries where samples were collected apart from the Republic of Korea and China. Eight NPS were also identified with this protocol: 3-methylmethcathinone 11%), eutylone (6%), etizolam (2%), 3-chloromethcathinone (4%), mitragynine (6%), phenibut (2%), 25I-NBOH (2%) and trimethoxyamphetamine (2%). The latter three have not previously been reported in municipal wastewater samples. The workflow employed allowed the prioritisation of features to be further investigated, reducing processing time and gaining in confidence in their identification.

Psychoactive pharmaceuticals in sludge and their emission from wastewater treatment facilities in Korea.

Concern over the occurrence of pharmaceuticals and their metabolites in the environment is mounting due to the potential adverse effects on nontarget organisms. This study draws upon a nationwide survey of psychoactive pharmaceuticals (i.e., antischizophrenics, anxiolytics, and antidepressants) in sludge from 40 representative wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) that receive domestic, industrial, or mixed (domestic plus industrial) wastewaters in Korea. A total of 16 psychoactive pharmaceuticals (0.12-460 ng/g dry weight) and nine of their metabolites (0.97-276 ng/g dry weight) were determined in sludge. The median concentrations of psychoactive drugs in sludge from domestic WWTPs were 1.2-3.2 times higher than the concentrations found in WWTPs that receive combined domestic and industrial wastewaters. Among the psychoactive drugs analyzed, the median environmental emission rates of alprazolam (APZ) and carbamazepine (CBZ) through domestic WWTPs (both sludge and effluent discharges combined) were calculated to be ≥ 15.5 µg/capita/day, followed by quetiapine (QTP; 8.51 µg/capita/day), citalopram (CLP; 5.45 µg/capita/day), and venlafaxine (VLF; 3.59 µg/capita/day). The per-capita emission rates of some of the metabolites of psychoactive drugs through WWTP discharges were higher than those calculated for parent compounds. Significant correlations (ρ = 0.432-0.780, p < 0.05) were found between the concentrations of typically coprescribed antischizophrenics and antidepressants in sludge. Multiple linear regression analysis of measured concentrations of drugs in sludge revealed that several WWTP parameters such as treatment capacity, population-served, sludge production rate, composition of wastewater (domestic versus industrial), and hydraulic retention time can affect the concentrations of psychoactive drugs in sludge.

Three years of wastewater surveillance for new psychoactive substances from 16 countries.

The proliferation of new psychoactive substances (NPS) over recent years has made their surveillance complex. The analysis of raw municipal influent wastewater can allow a broader insight into community consumption patterns of NPS. This study examines data from an international wastewater surveillance program that collected and analysed influent wastewater samples from up to 47 sites in 16 countries between 2019 and 2022. Influent wastewater samples were collected over the New Year period and analysed using validated liquid chromatography - mass spectrometry methods. Over the three years, a total of 18 NPS were found in at least one site. Synthetic cathinones were the most found class followed by phenethylamines and designer benzodiazepines. Furthermore, two ketamine analogues, one plant based NPS (mitragynine) and methiopropamine were also quantified across the three years. This work demonstrates that NPS are used across different continents and countries with the use of some more evident in particular regions. For example, mitragynine has highest mass loads in sites in the United States, while eutylone and 3-methylmethcathinone increased considerably in New Zealand and in several European countries, respectively. Moreover, 2F-deschloroketamine, an analogue of ketamine, has emerged more recently and could be quantified in several sites, including one in China, where it is considered as one of the drugs of most concern. Finally, some NPS were detected in specific regions during the initial sampling campaigns and spread to additional sites by the third campaign. Hence, wastewater surveillance can provide an insight into temporal and spatial trends of NPS use.

Occurrence of pharmaceuticals and personal care products in German fish tissue: a national study.

German Environment Specimen Bank (GESB) fish tissue samples, collected from 14 different GESB locations, were analyzed for 15 pharmaceuticals, 2 pharmaceutical metabolites, and 12 personal care products. Only 2 pharmaceuticals, diphenhydramine and desmethylsertraline, were measured above MDL. Diphenhydramine (0.04-0.07 ng g(-1) ww) and desmethylsertraline (1.65-3.28 ng g(-1) ww) were measured at 4 and 2 locations, respectively. The maximum concentrations of galaxolide (HHCB) (447 ng g(-1) ww) and tonalide (AHTN) (15 ng g(-1) ww) were measured at the Rehlingen sampling site in the Saar River. A significant decrease in HHCB and AHTN fish tissue concentrations was observed from 1995 to 2008 at select GESB sampling sites (r(2) = 0.69-0.89 for galaxolide and 0.89-0.97 for tonalide with p < 0.003). Galaxolide and tonalide fish tissue concentrations in Germany were ∼19× and ∼28× lower, respectively, as compared to fish tissue concentrations measured in a United States nationwide PPCP study conducted in 2006. Proximity of the sampling locations to the upstream wastewater treatment plant discharging point and mean annual flow at the sampling location were found to significantly predict galaxolide and tonalide fish tissue concentrations (HHCB: r(2) = 0.79, p = 0.021 and AHTN: r(2) = 0.81, p = 0.037) in Germany.

Isoprostanes in wastewater as biomarkers of oxidative stress during COVID-19 pandemic.

Isoprostanes are the potential biomarkers of endogenous human metabolism and proven clinically to provide the quantitative measure of systematic oxidative injury. An ultra-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometric analytical method capable of determining four biomarkers of oxidative stress (8-iso-PGF2α, 2,3-dinor-iPF2α-III, PGE2, and 5-iPF2α-VI) in wastewater was developed and validated. Isoprostanes were quantified in the range of 31.1-1270 ng/L in raw wastewater samples in two communities in western Kentucky and Tennessee during the first four months of the COVID-19 pandemic. Consistent detection of PGE2 and 5-iPF2α-VI in wastewater suggested that PGE2 and 5-iPF2α-VI can be a reliable biomarker of community oxidative anxiety. The higher 4-month average mass load of isoprostanes [(ranged from 22.9 mg/d/1000 people to 807 mg/d/1000 people] may be attributed to the elevated community level oxidative anxiety owing COVID-19 uncertainties. The average mass loads of PGE2 and 5-iPF2α-VI in a community were significantly increased (two-tailed p < 0.001) from the first month of COVID-19 pandemic to the second month; however, significantly decreased (two-tailed p < 0.001) in the third month. Wastewater-based-epidemiological determination of isoprostanes can be a near-real-time and cost-effective approach of a trend in community depression. This is the first report of the quantification of PGE2 and 5-iPF2α-VI in wastewater and estimation of the community level oxidative anxiety.

Basketball and drugs: Wastewater-based epidemiological estimation of discharged drugs during basketball games in Kentucky.

High school sports gather a significantly larger number of fans than college and professional sports in the U.S. Adolescent and adult students in high schools and colleges (aged 12-25) are among the most vulnerable population to substance use. Event planners, risk managers, and emergency medical service personnel can extrapolate the mass loads of drugs in wastewater in this study to evaluate the spectator behavior in relatively larger basketball gatherings. Thirty-three illicit and prescribed psychotic drug residues (out of target 36) and five new psychoactive substances (NPS, out of target 40) were quantified in wastewater, using ultra-performance liquid chromatography and tandem mass spectrometry, discharged during a college and a high school basketball games that were played in the same stadium in Kentucky. The wastewater concentrations of amphetamine, methylphenidate, hydromorphone were significantly higher (p ≤ 0.040) during a high school basketball game whereas cocaine, hydrocodone, and gabapentin was significantly higher (p ≤ 0.006) in a college basketball game. Higher cocaine to its metabolite ratio suggested that a significant amount of cocaine may have directly discharged down the drain during the college basketball game. Two synthetic cathinones (methcathinone and 4-methyl pentedrone) and three other NPSs (4-ANPP, mCPP, and 4-methylamphetamine) were also quantified in wastewater indicate the prevalence of NPSs in Kentucky. This is the first report of quantified substances of potential abuses at basketball games.

Estimating drug consumption during a college sporting event from wastewater using liquid chromatography mass spectrometry.

Consumption of licit and/or illicit compounds during sporting events has traditionally been monitored using population surveys, medical records, and law enforcement seizure data. This pilot study evaluated the temporal and geospatial patterns in drug consumption during a university football game from wastewater using liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). Untreated wastewater samples were collected from three locations within or near the same football stadium every 30 min during a university football game. This analysis leveraged two LCMS/ MS instruments (Waters Acquity TQD and a Shimadzu 8040) to analyze samples for 58 licit or illicit compounds and some of their metabolites. Bayesian multilevel models were implemented to estimate mass load and population-level drug consumption, while accounting for multiple instrument runs and concentrations censored at the lower limit of quantitation. Overall, 29 compounds were detected in at least one wastewater sample collected during the game. The 10 most common compounds included opioids, anorectics, stimulants, and decongestants. For compounds detected in more than 50% of samples, temporal trends in median mass load were correlated with the timing of the game; peak loads for cocaine and tramadol occurred during the first quarter of the game and for phentermine during the third quarter. Stadium-wide estimates of the number of doses of drugs consumed were rank ordered as follows: oxycodone (n = 3246) > hydrocodone (n = 2260) > phentermine (n = 513) > cocaine (n = 415) > amphetamine (n = 372) > tramadol (n = 360) > pseudoephedrine (n = 324). This analysis represents the most comprehensive assessment of drug consumption during a university football game and indicates that wastewater-based epidemiology has potential to inform public health interventions focused on reducing recreational drug consumption during large-scale sporting events.

Prevalence of illicit and prescribed neuropsychiatric drugs in three communities in Kentucky using wastewater-based epidemiology and Monte Carlo simulation for the estimation of associated uncertainties.

A cost-effective alternative approach capable of determining the prevalence of substance use in communities can complement the existing efforts of combating drug abuse and addiction. In this study, the prevalence of 10 illicit and 19 prescribed psychoactive drugs of potential abuse was determined utilizing wastewater-based epidemiology, and compared in two adjoined urban communities and a rural community. This is the first application of the Monte Carlo simulation method to account multiple uncertainties and propagation of errors associated with the individual parameter of wastewater based epidemiological estimations in the U.S. A significantly higher prevalence of cocaine [3830 (mean difference, MD: 2960) mg/d/1000 people] was found in the central business district while the per-capita consumption rates of amphetamine [738 (MD: 338) mg/d/1000 people] and methamphetamine [1660 (MD: 629) mg/d/1000 people] were higher in a rural community. Among narcotics, the per-capita consumption rate of fentanyl and morphine was significantly higher in urban communities while codeine, hydrocodone, hydromorphone, and buprenorphine were dominant in a rural community. The significantly higher prevalence of buprenorphine (˜20-30 folds), oxycodone (˜2-3 folds), and alprazolam (˜2-3 folds) determined in these communities compared to the conventional estimates based on the electronically reported prescriptions and drug-related inpatient hospitalizations suggest the abuse of these drugs.

Abundances and concentrations of brominated azo dyes detected in indoor dust.

Dust samples were collected from four indoor environments, including childcare facilities, houses, hair salons, and a research facility from the USA and were analyzed for brominated compounds using full scan liquid chromatography high-resolution mass spectrometry. A total of 240 brominated compounds were detected in these dust samples, and elemental formulas were predicted for 120 more abundant ions. In addition to commonly detected brominated flame retardants (BFRs), nitrogen-containing brominated azo dyes (BADs) were among the most frequently detected and abundant. Specifically, greater abundances of BADs were detected in indoor dusts from daycares and salons compared to houses and the research facility. Using authentic standards, a quantitative method was established for two BADs (DB373: Disperse Blue 373 and DV93: Disperse Violet 93) and 2-bromo-4,6-dinitroaniline, a commonly used precursor in azo dye production, in indoor dust. Generally, greater concentrations of DB373 (≤3850 ng/g) and DV93 (≤1190 ng/g) were observed in indoor dust from daycares highlighting children as a susceptible population to potential health risk from exposure to BADs. These data are important because, to date, targeted analysis of brominated compounds in indoor environments has focused mainly on BFRs and appears to underestimate the total amount of brominated compounds.

Estimation of Community Usage of Drugs Utilizing Sewage Epidemiology.

Drug abuse is considered to be a national epidemic in many countries including the USA, and is associated with impaired social indicators including economic loss and adverse public health. The conventional methods of estimation of drug usage in communities are based on self-reported surveys, overdose or toxicological reports, drug-related crime statistics, and hospital admissions. Conventional methods suffer from several shortcomings including cost and time intensiveness, nonresponse bias, bias in the selection of sample population, and consumer's unawareness on the actual composition of used drugs. Sewage epidemiology utilizes the mass load of drugs in wastewater influent to estimate the drug usage in a community. Despite several challenges to the determination of the human excretion profile of drugs, the stability of drugs in wastewater, the dynamics of the population, sewage epidemiology provides several opportunities, including a cost-effective, comprehensive, noninvasive, and nearly real-time measure of trends of drug use over time.

Analysis of Illicit Drugs in Wastewater Using High-Performance Liquid Chromatography-Electrospray Ionization-Tandem Mass Spectrometry (HPLC-ESI-MS/MS).

Consumption of illicit drugs is considered to be a global socioeconomic burden of adverse ecological and public health. Proper identification and quantification of trace level residues of illicit drugs in wastewater allow for an estimation of drug usage in a community, the amount of drug discharge into the environment, and the overall fate of drugs in the environment. This chapter provides a procedural detail of the determination of select illicit drugs and their metabolites in wastewater, suspended particulate matter, and sewage sludge using high-performance liquid chromatography-electrospray ionization-tandem mass spectrometry.

Estimation of the consumption of illicit drugs during special events in two communities in Western Kentucky, USA using sewage epidemiology.

Sewage epidemiology is a cost-effective, comprehensive, and non-invasive technique capable of determining semi-real-time community usage of drugs utilizing the concentration of drug residues in wastewater, wastewater inflow, and the population size served by a wastewater treatment plant. In this study, semi-real-time consumption rates of ten illicit drugs were determined using sewage epidemiology during special events including Independence Day, the 2017 solar eclipse, and the first week of an academic semester in the Midwestern United States. The average per-capita consumption rate of amphetamine, methamphetamine, cocaine, and THC were significantly different between two similar-sized communities during Independence Day observation week (p<0.046) and a typical week (p<0.001). Compared to a typical day, the consumption rate of amphetamine, methamphetamine, cocaine, morphine, and methadone was significantly higher on Independence Day (p<0.021) and during solar eclipse observation (p=0.020). The estimated percentage of the population that consumed cocaine in a community is similar to the conventionally estimated consumption of cocaine; however, the combined estimated population that consumed amphetamine and methamphetamine based on sewage epidemiology was ~2 to 4 fold higher than the conventional estimates. This study is the first to compare community use of drugs during special events in the USA using sewage epidemiology.