Plasmacytoid dendritic cells sequester high prion titres at early stages of prion infection.

In most transmissible spongiform encephalopathies prions accumulate in the lymphoreticular system (LRS) long before they are detectable in the central nervous system. While a considerable body of evidence showed that B lymphocytes and follicular dendritic cells play a major role in prion colonization of lymphoid organs, the contribution of various other cell types, including antigen-presenting cells, to the accumulation and the spread of prions in the LRS are not well understood. A comprehensive study to compare prion titers of candidate cell types has not been performed to date, mainly due to limitations in the scope of animal bioassays where prohibitively large numbers of mice would be required to obtain sufficiently accurate data. By taking advantage of quantitative in vitro prion determination and magnetic-activated cell sorting, we studied the kinetics of prion accumulation in various splenic cell types at early stages of prion infection. Robust estimates for infectious titers were obtained by statistical modelling using a generalized linear model. Whilst prions were detectable in B and T lymphocytes and in antigen-presenting cells like dendritic cells and macrophages, highest infectious titers were determined in two cell types that have previously not been associated with prion pathogenesis, plasmacytoid dendritic (pDC) and natural killer (NK) cells. At 30 days after infection, NK cells were more than twice, and pDCs about seven-fold, as infectious as lymphocytes respectively. This result was unexpected since, in accordance to previous reports prion protein, an obligate requirement for prion replication, was undetectable in pDCs. This underscores the importance of prion sequestration and dissemination by antigen-presenting cells which are among the first cells of the immune system to encounter pathogens. We furthermore report the first evidence for a release of prions from lymphocytes and DCs of scrapie-infected mice ex vivo, a process that is associated with a release of exosome-like membrane vesicles.

Pharmacological chaperone for the structured domain of human prion protein.

In prion diseases, the misfolded protein aggregates are derived from cellular prion protein (PrP(C)). Numerous ligands have been reported to bind to human PrP(C) (huPrP), but none to the structured region with the affinity required for a pharmacological chaperone. Using equilibrium dialysis, we screened molecules previously suggested to interact with PrP to discriminate between those which did not interact with PrP, behaved as nonspecific polyionic aggregates or formed a genuine interaction. Those that bind could potentially act as pharmacological chaperones. Here we report that a cationic tetrapyrrole [Fe(III)-TMPyP], which displays potent antiprion activity, binds to the structured region of huPrP. Using a battery of biophysical techniques, we demonstrate that Fe(III)-TMPyP forms a 11 complex via the structured C terminus of huPrP with a K(d) of 4.5 ± 2 µM, which is in the range of its IC(50) for curing prion-infected cells of 1.6 ± 0.4 µM and the concentration required to inhibit protein-misfolding cyclic amplification. Therefore, this molecule tests the hypothesis that stabilization of huPrP(C), as a principle, could be used in the treatment of human prion disease. The identification of a binding site with a defined 3D structure opens up the possibility of designing small molecules that stabilize huPrP and prevent its conversion into the disease-associated form.

The H187R mutation of the human prion protein induces conversion of recombinant prion protein to the PrP(Sc)-like form.

Prion diseases are associated with a conformational switch in the prion protein (PrP) from its normal cellular form (denoted PrP(C)) to a disease-associated "scrapie" form (PrP(Sc)). A number of PrP(Sc)-like conformations can be generated by incubating recombinant PrP(C) at low pH, indicating that protonation of key residues is likely to destabilize PrP(C), facilitating its conversion to PrP(Sc). Here, we examine the stability of human PrP(C) with pH and find that PrP(C) fold stability is significantly reduced by the protonation of two histidine residues, His187 and His155. Mutation of His187 to an arginine, which imposes a permanently positively charged residue in this region of the protein, has a dramatic effect on the folding of PrP(C), resulting in a molecule that displays a markedly increased propensity to oligomerize. The oligomeric form is characterized by an increased ß-sheet content, loss of fixed side chain interactions, and partial proteinase resistance. Hence, the protonation state of H187 appears to be crucial in determining the conformation of PrP; the unprotonated form favors native PrP(C), while the protonated form favors PrP(Sc)-like conformations. These results are relevant to the pathogenic H187R mutation found in humans, which is associated with an inherited prion disease [also termed Gerstmann-Sträussler-Scheinker (GSS) syndrome] with unusual features such as childhood neuropsychiatric illness. Our data imply that the intrinsic instability of the PrP(C) conformation in this variant is caused by a positive charge at this site in the protein. This mutation is distinct from all those associated with GSS, which have much more subtle physical consequences. The degree of instability might be the cause of the unusually early onset of mental disturbance in affected individuals.

Discrimination between prion-infected and normal blood samples by protein misfolding cyclic amplification.

BACKGROUND: Diagnosis of prion disease from blood samples requires the detection of minute quantities of misfolded protein (PrP(Sc)) against a high background of correctly folded material (PrP(C)). Protein misfolding cyclic amplification (PMCA) is a technique that can amplify small amounts of seed PrP(Sc) to a level detectable by conventional methods. Application of PMCA to the testing of whole blood samples enhances the ability to detect PrP(Sc) and allows antemortem detection of prion infection and could facilitate blood screening. STUDY DESIGN AND METHODS: The PMCA method was used to detect prion infection in blood samples obtained from mice experimentally infected with prion disease. Mice were culled at various time points throughout the incubation period for disease and subjected to serial PMCA (sPMCA). Amplified samples were then analyzed by Western blotting to confirm the presence or absence of infection. RESULTS: After sPMCA, blood samples from Rocky Mountain Laboratory-infected mice showed amplification of PrP(Sc) to levels readily detectable by Western blotting. Control samples obtained from mice mock inoculated with sterile phosphate-buffered saline did not yield any amplification products. CONCLUSION: sPMCA performed on small volumes of whole blood gave amplification of PK-resistant material to a level detectable by standard methods. Discrimination between infected and control samples was achieved without the need for processing or fractionation of whole blood. The use of whole blood as an analyte circumvents the need to identify the optimal blood compartment for analysis and guarantees the totality of misfolded PrP will be available for detection.

A highly sensitive immunoassay for the detection of prion-infected material in whole human blood without the use of proteinase K.

BACKGROUND: The causal association of variant Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (vCJD) with bovine spongiform encephalopathy has raised significant concerns for public health. Assays for vCJD infection are vital for the application of therapeutics, for the screening of organ donations, and to maintain a safe blood supply. Currently the best diagnostic tools for vCJD depend upon the detection of disease-associated prion protein (PrP(Sc) ), which is distinguished from normal background PrP (PrP(C) ) by proteinase K (PK) digestion, which can also degrade up to 90% of the target antigen. STUDY DESIGN AND METHODS: A sandwich enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay method was developed using unique antibodies for the detection of disease-associated PrP in the absence of PK treatment. In combination with immunoprecipitation the assay was optimized for the detection of pathogenic PrP in large volumes of whole blood. RESULTS: Optimization of the assay allowed detection of 2×10(4) LD(50) units/mL spiked in whole blood. Application of the assay to clinically relevant volumes enabled the detection of 750 LD(50) units/mL in 8mL of whole blood. CONCLUSION: By combining the use of a unique antibody that selectively immunoprecipitates PrP(Sc) with glycoform-restrictive antibodies we have developed a rapid assay for vCJD infection that does not require any PK treatment to achieve high levels of specificity in whole human blood, the most challenging potential analyte. The sensitivity of detection of vCJD infection is greater than the equivalent of a more than 2.5 million-fold dilution of infected brain, providing a highly sensitive immunoassay compatible with blood screening.

Detection and characterization of proteinase K-sensitive disease-related prion protein with thermolysin.

Disease-related PrP(Sc) [pathogenic PrP (prion protein)] is classically distinguished from its normal cellular precursor, PrP(C)(cellular PrP) by its detergent insolubility and partial resistance to proteolysis. Although molecular diagnosis of prion disease has historically relied upon detection of protease-resistant fragments of PrP(Sc) using PK (proteinase K), it is now apparent that a substantial fraction of disease-related PrP is destroyed by this protease. Recently, thermolysin has been identified as a complementary tool to PK, permitting isolation of PrP(Sc) in its full-length form. In the present study, we show that thermolysin can degrade PrP(C) while preserving both PK-sensitive and PK-resistant isoforms of disease-related PrP in both rodent and human prion strains. For mouse RML (Rocky Mountain Laboratory) prions, the majority of PK-sensitive disease-related PrP isoforms do not appear to contribute significantly to infectivity. In vCJD (variant Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease), the human counterpart of BSE (bovine spongiform encephalopathy), up to 90% of total PrP present in the brain resists degradation with thermolysin, whereas only approximately 15% of this material resists digestion by PK. Detection of PK-sensitive isoforms of disease-related PrP using thermolysin should be useful for improving diagnostic sensitivity in human prion diseases.

Elongated oligomers assemble into mammalian PrP amyloid fibrils.

In prion diseases, the mammalian prion protein PrP is converted from a monomeric, mainly alpha-helical state into beta-rich amyloid fibrils. To examine the structure of the misfolded state, amyloid fibrils were grown from a beta form of recombinant mouse PrP (residues 91-231). The beta-PrP precursors assembled slowly into amyloid fibrils with an overall helical twist. The fibrils exhibit immunological reactivity similar to that of ex vivo PrP Sc. Using electron microscopy and image processing, we obtained three-dimensional density maps of two forms of PrP fibrils with slightly different twists. They reveal two intertwined protofilaments with a subunit repeat of approximately 60 A. The repeating unit along each protofilament can be accounted for by elongated oligomers of PrP, suggesting a hierarchical assembly mechanism for the fibrils. The structure reveals flexible crossbridges between the two protofilaments, and subunit contacts along the protofilaments that are likely to reflect specific features of the PrP sequence, in addition to the generic, cross-beta amyloid fold.

Ex vivo mammalian prions are formed of paired double helical prion protein fibrils.

Mammalian prions are hypothesized to be fibrillar or amyloid forms of prion protein (PrP), but structures observed to date have not been definitively correlated with infectivity and the three-dimensional structure of infectious prions has remained obscure. Recently, we developed novel methods to obtain exceptionally pure preparations of prions from mouse brain and showed that pathogenic PrP in these high-titre preparations is assembled into rod-like assemblies. Here, we have used precise cell culture-based prion infectivity assays to define the physical relationship between the PrP rods and prion infectivity and have used electron tomography to define their architecture. We show that infectious PrP rods isolated from multiple prion strains have a common hierarchical assembly comprising twisted pairs of short fibres with repeating substructure. The architecture of the PrP rods provides a new structural basis for understanding prion infectivity and can explain the inability to systematically generate high-titre synthetic prions from recombinant PrP.

A systematic investigation of production of synthetic prions from recombinant prion protein.

According to the protein-only hypothesis, infectious mammalian prions, which exist as distinct strains with discrete biological properties, consist of multichain assemblies of misfolded cellular prion protein (PrP). A critical test would be to produce prion strains synthetically from defined components. Crucially, high-titre 'synthetic' prions could then be used to determine the structural basis of infectivity and strain diversity at the atomic level. While there have been multiple reports of production of prions from bacterially expressed recombinant PrP using various methods, systematic production of high-titre material in a form suitable for structural analysis remains a key goal. Here, we report a novel high-throughput strategy for exploring a matrix of conditions, additives and potential cofactors that might generate high-titre prions from recombinant mouse PrP, with screening for infectivity using a sensitive automated cell-based bioassay. Overall, approximately 20,000 unique conditions were examined. While some resulted in apparently infected cell cultures, this was transient and not reproducible. We also adapted published methods that reported production of synthetic prions from recombinant hamster PrP, but again did not find evidence of significant infectious titre when using recombinant mouse PrP as substrate. Collectively, our findings are consistent with the formation of prion infectivity from recombinant mouse PrP being a rare stochastic event and we conclude that systematic generation of prions from recombinant PrP may only become possible once the detailed structure of authentic ex vivo prions is solved.

Superoxide dismutase 1 and tgSOD1 mouse spinal cord seed fibrils, suggesting a propagative cell death mechanism in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis.

BACKGROUND: Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) is a neurodegenerative disease that specifically affects motor neurons and leads to a progressive and ultimately fatal loss of function, resulting in death typically within 3 to 5 years of diagnosis. The disease starts with a focal centre of weakness, such as one limb, and appears to spread to other parts of the body. Mutations in superoxide dismutase 1 (SOD1) are known to cause disease and it is generally accepted they lead to pathology not by loss of enzymatic activity but by gain of some unknown toxic function(s). Although different mutations lead to varying tendencies of SOD1 to aggregate, we suggest abnormal proteins share a common misfolding pathway that leads to the formation of amyloid fibrils. METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS: Here we demonstrate that misfolding of superoxide dismutase 1 leads to the formation of amyloid fibrils associated with seeding activity, which can accelerate the formation of new fibrils in an autocatalytic cascade. The time limiting event is nucleation to form a stable protein "seed" before a rapid linear polymerisation results in amyloid fibrils analogous to other protein misfolding disorders. This phenomenon was not confined to fibrils of recombinant protein as here we show, for the first time, that spinal cord homogenates obtained from a transgenic mouse model that overexpresses mutant human superoxide dismutase 1 (the TgSOD1(G93A) mouse) also contain amyloid seeds that accelerate the formation of new fibrils in both wildtype and mutant SOD1 protein in vitro. CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE: These findings provide new insights into ALS disease mechanism and in particular a mechanism that could account for the spread of pathology throughout the nervous system. This model of disease spread, which has analogies to other protein misfolding disorders such as prion disease, also suggests it may be possible to design assays for therapeutics that can inhibit fibril propagation and hence, possibly, disease progression.

Codon 129 polymorphism of the human prion protein influences the kinetics of amyloid formation.

The human prion protein (PrP) has a common polymorphism at residue 129, which can be valine or methionine. This polymorphism has a strong influence on susceptibility to prion diseases and on prion-strain properties. Previous work has shown that this amino acid variation has no measurable effect on the native structure of cellular PrP (PrPC). Here, it is shown that the polymorphism does not change the efficiency of conversion to the beta-PrP conformation or affect the binding of copper(II) ions. However, in a partially denatured conformation, the polymorphic variation has a profound influence on the ability of the protein to form amyloid fibrils spontaneously.