Super determinant1A, a RAWULdomain-containing protein, modulates axillary meristem formation and compound leaf development in tomato.

Shoot branching and complex leaf development relies on the establishment of boundaries that precedes the formation of axillary meristems (AMs) and leaflets. The tomato (Solanum lycopersicum) super determinant mutant is compromised in both processes, due to a mutation in Sde1A. Sde1A encodes a protein with a RAWUL domain, which is also present in Polycomb Group Repressive Complex 1 (PRC1) RING finger proteins and WD Repeat Domain 48 proteins. Genetic analysis revealed that Sde1A and Bmi1A cooperate, whereas Bmi1C antagonizes both activities, indicating the existence of functionally opposing PRC1 complexes that interact with Sde1A. Sde1A is expressed at early stages of boundary development in a small group of cells in the center of the leaf-axil boundary, but its activity is required for meristem formation at later stages. This suggests that Sde1A and Bmi1A promote AM formation and complex leaf development by safeguarding a pool of cells in the developing boundary zones. Genetic and protein interaction analyses showed that Sde1A and Lateral suppressor (Ls) are components of the same genetic pathway. In contrast to ls, sde1a mutants are not compromised in inflorescence branching, suggesting that Sde1A is a potential target for breeding tomato cultivars with reduced side-shoot formation during vegetative development.

Mutations in the miR396 binding site of the growth-regulating factor gene VvGRF4 modulate inflorescence architecture in grapevine.

Bunch rot caused by Botrytis cinerea infections is a notorious problem in grapevine cultivation. To produce high quality fruits, grapevine plants are treated with fungicides, which is cost intensive and harmful to the environment. Conversely, loose cluster bunches show a considerably enhanced physical resilience to bunch diseases. With the aim to identify genetic determinants that modulate the development of bunch architecture, we have compared loose and compact 'Pinot noir' clones. Loose cluster architecture was found to be correlated with increased berry size, elongated rachis and elongated pedicels. Using transcriptome analysis in combination with whole genome sequencing, we have identified a growth-regulating factor gene, VvGRF4, upregulated and harbours heterozygous mutations in the loose cluster clones. At late stages of inflorescence development, the mRNA pools of loose cluster clones contain predominantly mRNAs derived from the mutated alleles, which are resistant to miR396 degradation. Expression of the VvGRF4 gene and its mutated variants in Arabidopsis demonstrates that it promotes pedicel elongation. Taken together, VvGRF4 modulates bunch architecture in grapevine 'Pinot noir' clones. This trait can be introduced into other cultivars using marker-assisted breeding or CRISPR-Cas9 technology. Related growth-regulating factors or other genes of the same pathway may have similar functions.

Keep a distance to be different: axillary buds initiating at a distance from the shoot apical meristem are crucial for the perennial lifestyle of Arabis alpina.

In many seed plants, perennialism is achieved through axillary buds and side shoots that remain vegetative. This work aimed to analyse the pattern of axillary bud (AB) formation in the perennial model plant Arabis alpina and to study the role of the LATERAL SUPPRESSOR (AaLAS) gene. This study combines stereomicroscopic analysis with RNA sequencing to monitor the correlation between patterns of AB formation and gene expression. The role of AaLAS was studied using an RNA interference (RNAi) approach. During vegetative development, ABs initiate at a distance from the shoot apical meristem (SAM), whereas after floral induction, they initiate adjacent to the SAM. Dormant buds are established before the onset of vernalization. Transcript profiles of ABs initiated at a distance differed from those in the SAM, whereas those of buds initiated in close proximity were similar. Knockdown of AaLAS leads to the loss of dormant buds and vegetative side shoots, strongly compromising the perennial life cycle. AB formation is regulated differently during vegetative and reproductive development. New meristems that possess different gene expression profiles from those in the SAM are established at a distance from the SAM. AaLAS is essential for the perennial life cycle by modulating the establishment of dormant buds and vegetative side shoots.

Differential expression of transcription factor- and further growth-related genes correlates with contrasting cluster architecture in Vitis vinifera 'Pinot Noir' and Vitis spp. genotypes.

Grapevine (Vitis vinifera L.) is an economically important crop that needs to comply with high quality standards for fruit, juice and wine production. Intense plant protection is required to avoid fungal damage. Grapevine cultivars with loose cluster architecture enable reducing protective treatments due to their enhanced resilience against fungal infections, such as Botrytis cinerea-induced gray mold. A recent study identified transcription factor gene VvGRF4 as determinant of pedicel length, an important component of cluster architecture, in samples of two loose and two compact quasi-isogenic 'Pinot Noir' clones. Here, we extended the analysis to 12 differently clustered 'Pinot Noir' clones from five diverse clonal selection programs. Differential gene expression of these clones was studied in three different locations over three seasons. Two phenotypically opposite clones were grown at all three locations and served for standardization. Data were correlated with the phenotypic variation of cluster architecture sub-traits. A set of 14 genes with consistent expression differences between loosely and compactly clustered clones-independent from season and location-was newly identified. These genes have annotations related to cellular growth, cell division and auxin metabolism and include two more transcription factor genes, PRE6 and SEP1-like. The differential expression of VvGRF4 in relation to loose clusters was exclusively found in 'Pinot Noir' clones. Gene expression studies were further broadened to phenotypically contrasting F1 individuals of an interspecific cross and OIV reference varieties of loose cluster architecture. This investigation confirmed PRE6 and six growth-related genes to show differential expression related to cluster architecture over genetically divergent backgrounds.

The repressor and co-activator HsfB1 regulates the major heat stress transcription factors in tomato.

Plants code for a multitude of heat stress transcription factors (Hsfs). Three of them act as central regulators of heat stress (HS) response in tomato (Solanum lycopersicum). HsfA1a regulates the initial response, and HsfA2 controls acquired thermotolerance. HsfB1 is a transcriptional repressor but can also act as co-activator of HsfA1a. Currently, the mode of action and the relevance of the dual function of HsfB1 remain elusive. We examined this in HsfB1 overexpression or suppression transgenic tomato lines. Proteome analysis revealed that HsfB1 overexpression stimulates the co-activator function of HsfB1 and consequently the accumulation of HS-related proteins under non-stress conditions. Plants with enhanced levels of HsfB1 show aberrant growth and development but enhanced thermotolerance. HsfB1 suppression has no significant effect prior to stress. Upon HS, HsfB1 suppression strongly enhances the induction of heat shock proteins due to the higher activity of other HS-induced Hsfs, resulting in increased thermotolerance compared with wild-type. Thereby, HsfB1 acts as co-activator of HsfA1a for several Hsps, but as a transcriptional repressor on other Hsfs, including HsfA1b and HsfA2. The dual function explains the activation of chaperones to enhance protection and regulate the balance between growth and stress response upon deviations from the homeostatic levels of HsfB1.

Two-Step Regulation of a Meristematic Cell Population Acting in Shoot Branching in Arabidopsis.

Shoot branching requires the establishment of new meristems harboring stem cells; this phenomenon raises questions about the precise regulation of meristematic fate. In seed plants, these new meristems initiate in leaf axils to enable lateral shoot branching. Using live-cell imaging of leaf axil cells, we show that the initiation of axillary meristems requires a meristematic cell population continuously expressing the meristem marker SHOOT MERISTEMLESS (STM). The maintenance of STM expression depends on the leaf axil auxin minimum. Ectopic expression of STM is insufficient to activate axillary buds formation from plants that have lost leaf axil STM expressing cells. This suggests that some cells undergo irreversible commitment to a developmental fate. In more mature leaves, REVOLUTA (REV) directly up-regulates STM expression in leaf axil meristematic cells, but not in differentiated cells, to establish axillary meristems. Cell type-specific binding of REV to the STM region correlates with epigenetic modifications. Our data favor a threshold model for axillary meristem initiation, in which low levels of STM maintain meristematic competence and high levels of STM lead to meristem initiation.

HsfA2 Controls the Activity of Developmentally and Stress-Regulated Heat Stress Protection Mechanisms in Tomato Male Reproductive Tissues.

Male reproductive tissues are more sensitive to heat stress (HS) compared to vegetative tissues, but the basis of this phenomenon is poorly understood. Heat stress transcription factors (Hsfs) regulate the transcriptional changes required for protection from HS In tomato (Solanum lycopersicum), HsfA2 acts as coactivator of HsfA1a and is one of the major Hsfs accumulating in response to elevated temperatures. The contribution of HsfA2 in heat stress response (HSR) and thermotolerance was investigated in different tissues of transgenic tomato plants with suppressed HsfA2 levels (A2AS). Global transcriptome analysis and immunodetection of two major Hsps in vegetative and reproductive tissues showed that HsfA2 regulates subsets of HS-induced genes in a tissue-specific manner. Accumulation of HsfA2 by a moderate HS treatment enhances the capacity of seedlings to cope with a subsequent severe HS, suggesting an important role for HsfA2 in regulating acquired thermotolerance. In pollen, HsfA2 is an important coactivator of HsfA1a during HSR HsfA2 suppression reduces the viability and germination rate of pollen that received the stress during the stages of meiosis and microspore formation but had no effect on more advanced stages. In general, pollen meiocytes and microspores are characterized by increased susceptibility to HS due to their lower capacity to induce a strong HSR This sensitivity is partially mitigated by the developmentally regulated expression of HsfA2 and several HS-responsive genes mediated by HsfA1a under nonstress conditions. Thereby, HsfA2 is an important factor for the priming process that sustains pollen thermotolerance during microsporogenesis.

Auxin Depletion from the Leaf Axil Conditions Competence for Axillary Meristem Formation in Arabidopsis and Tomato.

The enormous variation in architecture of flowering plants is based to a large extent on their ability to form new axes of growth throughout their life span. Secondary growth is initiated from groups of pluripotent cells, called meristems, which are established in the axils of leaves. Such meristems form lateral organs and develop into a side shoot or a flower, depending on the developmental status of the plant and environmental conditions. The phytohormone auxin is well known to play an important role in inhibiting the outgrowth of axillary buds, a phenomenon known as apical dominance. However, the role of auxin in the process of axillary meristem formation is largely unknown. In this study, we show in the model species Arabidopsis thaliana and tomato (Solanum lycopersicum) that auxin is depleted from leaf axils during vegetative development. Disruption of polar auxin transport compromises auxin depletion from the leaf axil and axillary meristem initiation. Ectopic auxin biosynthesis in leaf axils interferes with axillary meristem formation, whereas repression of auxin signaling in polar auxin transport mutants can largely rescue their branching defects. These results strongly suggest that depletion of auxin from leaf axils is a prerequisite for axillary meristem formation during vegetative development.

Lateral suppressor and Goblet act in hierarchical order to regulate ectopic meristem formation at the base of tomato leaflets.

In seed plants, new axes of growth are established by the formation of meristems, groups of pluripotent cells that maintain themselves and initiate the formation of lateral organs. After embryonic development, secondary shoot meristems form in the boundary zones between the shoot apical meristem and leaf primordia, the leaf axils. In addition, many plant species develop ectopic meristems at different positions of the plant body. In the compound tomato leaf, ectopic meristems can initiate at the base of leaflets, which are delimited by two distinct boundary zones, referred to as the proximal (PLB) and distal (DLB) leaflet boundaries. We demonstrate that the two leaflet boundaries differ from each other and that ectopic meristem formation is strictly limited to the DLB. Our data suggest that the DLB harbours a group of pluripotent cells that seems to be the launching pad for meristem formation. Initiation of these meristems is dependent on the activities of the transcriptional regulators Goblet (Gob) and Lateral suppressor (Ls), specifically expressed in the DLB. Gob and Ls act in hierarchical order, because Ls transcript accumulation is dependent on Gob activity, but not vice versa. Ectopic meristem formation at the DLB is also observed in other seed plants, like Cardamine pratensis, indicating that it is part of a widespread developmental program. Ectopic meristem formation leads to an increase in the number of buds, enhances the capacity for survival and opens the route to vegetative propagation.

Divide et impera: boundaries shape the plant body and initiate new meristems.

485 I. 485 II. 486 III. 491 IV. 491 V. 495 495 References 495 SUMMARY: Boundaries, established and maintained in different regions of the plant body, have diverse functions in development. One role is to separate different cell groups, for example the differentiating cells of a leaf primordium from the pluripotent cells of the apical meristem. Boundary zones are also established during compound leaf development, to separate young leaflets from each other, and in many other positions of the plant body. Recent studies have demonstrated that different boundary zones share similar properties. They are characterized by a low rate of cell divisions and specific patterns of gene expression. In addition, the levels of the plant hormones auxin and brassinosteroids are down-regulated in boundary zones, resulting in a low differentiation level of boundary cells. This feature seems to be crucial for a second important role of boundary zones, the formation of new meristems. The primary shoot meristem, as well as secondary and ectopic shoot meristems, initiate from boundary cells that exhibit competence for meristem formation.

Trifoliate encodes an MYB transcription factor that modulates leaf and shoot architecture in tomato.

Leaf morphology and the pattern of shoot branching determine to a large extent the growth habit of seed plants. Until recently, the developmental processes that led to the establishment of these morphological structures seemed unrelated. Here, we show that the tomato Trifoliate (Tf) gene plays a crucial role in both processes, affecting the formation of leaflets in the compound tomato leaf and the initiation of axillary meristems in the leaf axil. Tf encodes a myeloblastosis oncoprotein (MYB)-like transcription factor related to the Arabidopsis thaliana LATERAL ORGAN FUSION1 (LOF1) and LOF2 proteins. Tf is expressed in the leaf margin, where leaflets are formed, and in the leaf axil, where axillary meristems initiate. During tomato ontogeny, expression of Tf in young leaf primordia increases, correlating with a rise in leaf dissection (heteroblasty). Formation of leaflets and initiation of axillary meristems can be traced back to groups of pluripotent cells. Tf function is required to inhibit differentiation of these cells and thereby to maintain their morphogenetic competence, a fundamental process in plant development. KNOTTED1-LIKE proteins, which are known regulators in tomato leaf dissection, require Tf activity to exert their function in the basal part of the leaf. Similarly, the plant hormone auxin needs Tf activity to initiate the formation of lateral leaflets. Thus, leaf dissection and shoot branching rely on a conserved mechanism that regulates the morphogenetic competence of cells at the leaf margin and in the leaf axil.

Epistatic natural allelic variation reveals a function of AGAMOUS-LIKE6 in axillary bud formation in Arabidopsis.

In the Arabidopsis multiparent recombinant inbred line mapping population, a limited number of plants were detected that lacked axillary buds in most of the axils of the cauline (stem) leaves, but formed such buds in almost all rosette axils. Genetic analysis showed that polymorphisms in at least three loci together constitute this phenotype, which only occurs in late-flowering plants. Early flowering is epistatic to two of these loci, called REDUCED SHOOT BRANCHING1 (RSB1) and RSB2, which themselves do not affect flowering time. Map-based cloning and confirmation by transformation with genes from the region where RSB1 was identified by fine-mapping showed that a specific allele of AGAMOUS-Like6 from accession C24 conferred reduced branching in the cauline leaves. Site-directed mutagenesis in the Columbia allele revealed the causal amino acid substitution, which behaved as dominant negative, as was concluded from a loss-of-function mutation that showed the same phenotype in the late-flowering genetic background. This causal allele occurs at a frequency of 15% in the resequenced Arabidopsis thaliana accessions and correlated with reduced stem branching only in late-flowering accessions. The data show the importance of natural variation and epistatic interactions in revealing gene function.

Shoot branching and leaf dissection in tomato are regulated by homologous gene modules.

Aerial plant architecture is predominantly determined by shoot branching and leaf morphology, which are governed by apparently unrelated developmental processes, axillary meristem formation, and leaf dissection. Here, we show that in tomato (Solanum lycopersicum), these processes share essential functions in boundary establishment. Potato leaf (C), a key regulator of leaf dissection, was identified to be the closest paralog of the shoot branching regulator Blind (Bl). Comparative genomics revealed that these two R2R3 MYB genes are orthologs of the Arabidopsis thaliana branching regulator REGULATOR OF AXILLARY MERISTEMS1 (RAX1). Expression studies and complementation analyses indicate that these genes have undergone sub- or neofunctionalization due to promoter differentiation. C acts in a pathway independent of other identified leaf dissection regulators. Furthermore, the known leaf complexity regulator Goblet (Gob) is crucial for axillary meristem initiation and acts in parallel to C and Bl. Finally, RNA in situ hybridization revealed that the branching regulator Lateral suppressor (Ls) is also expressed in leaves. All four boundary genes, C, Bl, Gob, and Ls, may act by suppressing growth, as indicated by gain-of-function plants. Thus, leaf architecture and shoot architecture rely on a conserved mechanism of boundary formation preceding the initiation of leaflets and axillary meristems.

The bHLH protein ROX acts in concert with RAX1 and LAS to modulate axillary meristem formation in Arabidopsis.

During post-embryonic shoot development, new meristems are initiated in the axils of leaves. They produce secondary axes of growth that determine morphological plasticity and reproductive efficiency in higher plants. In this study, we describe the role of the bHLH-protein-encoding Arabidopsis gene REGULATOR OF AXILLARY MERISTEM FORMATION (ROX), which is the ortholog of the branching regulators LAX PANICLE1 (LAX1) in rice and barren stalk1 (ba1) in maize. rox mutants display compromised axillary bud formation during vegetative shoot development, and combination of rox mutants with mutations in RAX1 and LAS, two key regulators of axillary meristem initiation, enhances their branching defects. In contrast to lax1 and ba1, flower development is unaffected in rox mutants. Over-expression of ROX leads to formation of accessory side shoots. ROX mRNA accumulates at the adaxial boundary of leaf and flower primordia. However, in the vegetative phase, axillary meristems initiate after ROX expression has terminated, suggesting an indirect role for ROX in meristem formation. During vegetative development, ROX expression is dependent on RAX1 and LAS activity, and all three genes act in concert to modulate axillary meristem formation.

Specific expression of LATERAL SUPPRESSOR is controlled by an evolutionarily conserved 3' enhancer.

Aerial plant architecture is largely based on the activity of axillary meristems (AMs), initiated in the axils of leaves. The Arabidopsis gene LATERAL SUPPRESSOR (LAS), which is expressed in well-defined domains at the adaxial boundary of leaf primordia, is a key regulator of AM formation. The precise definition of organ boundaries is an essential step for the formation of new organs in general and for meristem initiation; however, mechanisms leading to these specific patterns are not well understood. To increase understanding of how the highly specific transcript accumulation in organ boundary regions is established, we investigated the LAS promoter. Analysis of deletion constructs revealed that an essential enhancer necessary for complementation is situated about 3.2 kb downstream of the LAS open reading frame. This enhancer is sufficient to confer promoter specificity as upstream sequences in LAS could be replaced by non-specific promoters, such as the 35S minimal promoter. Further promoter swapping experiments using the PISTILLATA or the full 35S promoter demonstrated that the LAS 3' enhancer also has suppressor functions, largely overwriting the activity of different 5' promoters. Phylogenetic analyses suggest that LAS function and regulation are evolutionarily highly conserved. Homologous elements in downstream regulatory sequences were found in all LAS orthologs, including grasses. Transcomplementation experiments demonstrated the functional conservation of non-coding sequences between Solanum lycopersicum (tomato) and Arabidopsis. In summary, our results show that a highly conserved enhancer/suppressor element is the main regulatory module conferring the boundary-specific expression of LAS.

Role of tomato BRANCHED1-like genes in the control of shoot branching.

In angiosperms, shoot branching greatly determines overall plant architecture and affects fundamental aspects of plant life. Branching patterns are determined by genetic pathways conserved widely across angiosperms. In Arabidopsis thaliana (Brassicaceae, Rosidae) BRANCHED1 (BRC1) plays a central role in this process, acting locally to arrest axillary bud growth. In tomato (Solanum lycopersicum, Solanaceae, Asteridae) we have identified two BRC1-like paralogues, SlBRC1a and SlBRC1b. These genes are expressed in arrested axillary buds and both are down-regulated upon bud activation, although SlBRC1a is transcribed at much lower levels than SlBRC1b. Alternative splicing of SlBRC1a renders two transcripts that encode two BRC1-like proteins with different C-t domains due to a 3'-terminal frameshift. The phenotype of loss-of-function lines suggests that SlBRC1b has retained the ancestral role of BRC1 in shoot branch suppression. We have isolated the BRC1a and BRC1b genes of other Solanum species and have studied their evolution rates across the lineages. These studies indicate that, after duplication of an ancestral BRC1-like gene, BRC1b genes continued to evolve under a strong purifying selection that was consistent with the conserved function of SlBRC1b in shoot branching control. In contrast, the coding sequences of Solanum BRC1a genes have evolved at a higher evolution rate. Branch-site tests indicate that this difference does not reflect relaxation but rather positive selective pressure for adaptation.

LOST MERISTEMS genes regulate cell differentiation of central zone descendants in Arabidopsis shoot meristems.

Meristems of seed plants continuously produce new cells for incorporation into maturing tissues. A tightly controlled balance between cell proliferation in the center and cell differentiation at the periphery of the shoot meristem maintains its integrity. Here, we describe the role of three GRAS genes, named LOST MERISTEMS genes, in shoot apical meristem maintenance and axillary meristem formation. Under short photoperiods, the lom1 lom2 and lom1 lom2 lom3 mutants have arrested meristems characterized by an over-proliferation of meristematic cells and loss of polar organization. They also show early arrest of axillary meristem development and formation of ectopic meristematic cell clusters within the stem. LOM1 and LOM2 transcripts accumulate in the peripheral and basal zones of the SAM and in vascular strands. We show that LOM1 and LOM2 promote cell differentiation at the periphery of shoot meristems and help to maintain their polar organization.

Interplay of miR164, CUP-SHAPED COTYLEDON genes and LATERAL SUPPRESSOR controls axillary meristem formation in Arabidopsis thaliana.

Aerial architecture in higher plants is established post-embryonically by the inception of new meristems in the axils of leaves. These axillary meristems develop into side shoots or flowers. In Arabidopsis, the NAC domain transcription factors CUP SHAPED COTYLEDON1 (CUC1), CUC2 and CUC3 function redundantly in initiating the shoot apical meristem and establishing organ boundaries. Transcripts of CUC1 and CUC2 are targeted for degradation by miR164. In this study, we show that cuc3-2 mutants are impaired in axillary meristem initiation. Overexpression of miR164 in the cuc3-2 mutant caused an almost complete block of axillary meristem formation. Conversely, mir164 mutants and plants harbouring miR164-resistant alleles of CUC1 or CUC2 developed accessory buds in leaf axils. Collectively, these experiments reveal that, in addition to CUC3, redundant functions of CUC1 and CUC2 as well as miR164 regulation are required for the establishment of axillary meristems. Studies on LAS transcript accumulation in mir164 triple mutants and cuc3-2 plants overexpressing miR164 suggest that regulation of axillary meristem formation by miR164 is mediated through CUC1 and CUC2, which in turn regulate LAS.

PROCERA encodes a DELLA protein that mediates control of dissected leaf form in tomato.

Leaves of seed plants can be described as simple, where the leaf blade is entire, or dissected, where the blade is divided into distinct leaflets. Mechanisms that define leaflet number and position are poorly understood and their elucidation presents an attractive opportunity to understand mechanisms controlling organ shape in plants. In tomato (Solanum lycopersicum), a plant with dissected leaves, KNOTTED1-like homeodomain proteins (KNOX) are positive regulators of leaflet formation. Conversely, the hormone gibberellin (GA) can antagonise the effects of KNOX overexpression and reduce leaflet number, suggesting that GA may be a negative regulator of leaflet formation. However, when and how GA acts on leaf development is unknown. The reduced leaflet number phenotype of the tomato mutant procera (pro) mimics that of plants to which GA has been applied during leaf development, suggesting that PRO may define a GA signalling component required to promote leaflet formation. Here we show that PRO encodes a DELLA-type growth repressor that probably mediates GA-reversible growth restraint. We demonstrate that PRO is required to promote leaflet initiation during early stages of growth of leaf primordia and conversely that reduced GA biosynthesis increases the capability of the tomato leaf to produce leaflets in response to elevated KNOX activity. We propose that, in tomato, DELLA activity regulates leaflet number by defining the correct timing for leaflet initiation.

GEMMA CUP-ASSOCIATED MYB1, an Ortholog of Axillary Meristem Regulators, Is Essential in Vegetative Reproduction in Marchantia polymorpha.

A variety of plants in diverse taxa can reproduce asexually via vegetative propagation, in which clonal propagules with a new meristem(s) are generated directly from vegetative organs. A basal land plant, Marchantia polymorpha, develops clonal propagules, gemmae, on the gametophyte thallus from the basal epidermis of a specialized receptacle, the gemma cup. Here we report an R2R3-MYB transcription factor, designated GEMMA CUP-ASSOCIATED MYB1 (GCAM1), which is an essential regulator of gemma cup development in M. polymorpha. Targeted disruption of GCAM1 conferred a complete loss of gemma cup formation and gemma generation. Ectopic overexpression of GCAM1 resulted in formation of cell clumps, suggesting a function of GCAM1 in suppression of cell differentiation. Although gemma cups are a characteristic gametophyte organ for vegetative reproduction in a taxonomically restricted group of liverwort species, phylogenetic and interspecific complementation analyses support the orthologous relationship of GCAM1 to regulatory factors of axillary meristem formation, e.g., Arabidopsis REGULATOR OF AXILLARY MERISTEMS and tomato Blind, in angiosperm sporophytes. The present findings in M. polymorpha suggest an ancient acquisition of a transcriptional regulator for production of asexual propagules in the gametophyte and the use of the regulatory factor for diverse developmental programs, including axillary meristem formation, during land plant evolution.