History of fragility fracture is associated with cardiovascular mortality in hemodialysis patients: the Q-Cohort study.

INTRODUCTION: In patients undergoing dialysis, major bone fracture is associated with a high risk of mortality, including death of cardiovascular (CV) origin. In the present study, we aimed to determine whether a history of fragility fracture is a predictor of CV death in patients undergoing hemodialysis with long-term follow-up. MATERIALS AND METHODS: In total, 3499 patients undergoing hemodialysis were analyzed for 10 years. We evaluated the history of fragility fracture in each patient at enrollment. The primary outcome was CV death. A Cox proportional hazard model and a competing risk approach were applied to determine the association between a history of fragility fracture and CV death. RESULTS: A total of 346 patients had a history of fragility fracture at enrollment. During a median follow-up of 8.8 years, 1730 (49.4%) patients died. Among them, 621 patients experienced CV death. Multivariable Cox analyses after adjustment for confounding variables showed that a history of fragility fracture was associated with CV death (hazard ratio, 1.47; 95% confidence interval, 1.16-1.85). In the Fine-Gray regression model, a history of fragility fracture was an independent risk factor for CV death (subdistribution hazard ratio, 1.36; 95% confidence interval, 1.07-1.72). CONCLUSION: In a large cohort of patients undergoing hemodialysis, a history of fragility fracture was an independent predictor of CV death.

Prevalence of hyponatremia and associated factors in patients with chronic kidney disease: the Fukuoka Kidney Disease Registry (FKR) study.

BACKGROUND: Hyponatremia is a common and important electrolyte disorder. However, the prevalence and factors associated with hyponatremia in patients with chronic kidney disease (CKD) are unknown. METHODS: We studied the factors associated with hyponatremia (< 135 mEq/L) in CKD patients registered in the Fukuoka Kidney Disease Registry (FKR) study using a logistic regression model variable selected using the variable reduction method. RESULTS: We analyzed the baseline characteristics of 4367 participants with CKD (age, 64 ± 16 years; male, 56.1%). Hyponatremia was detected in 2.0% of the patients at baseline, and multivariate logistic analysis showed that the independent factors for hyponatremia were body mass index (odds ratio [OR] 0.91; 95% confidence interval [CI] 0.85-0.97), prescription of benzodiazepine (OR 2.31; 95% CI 1.39-3.86), blood hemoglobin level (OR 0.76; 95% CI 0.65-0.88), and serum C-reactive protein level (OR 1.27; 95% CI 1.04-1.54). CONCLUSION: The cross-sectional analysis using baseline data from the FKR study revealed independent factors associated with hyponatremia in patients with decreased kidney function. Longitudinal analyses of the FKR cohort are needed to evaluate the effects of these factors on the prognosis of hyponatremia in patients with CKD.

Angiotensin II receptor blockers and bone fracture in chronic kidney disease patients: the Fukuoka kidney disease Registry Study.

BACKGROUND: Angiotensin II receptor blockers (ARBs) reportedly reduce the risk of developing bone fractures; however, this association remains unclear among patients with chronic kidney disease (CKD). METHODS: This was a cross-sectional study of 3380 CKD patients enrolled in the Fukuoka Kidney disease Registry Study, a multicenter prospective observational cohort study of non-dialysis-dependent CKD patients. The patients were divided into two groups, those taking ARBs and those who were not. Logistic regression models were used to examine the association between ARBs and bone fracture. RESULTS: Approximately 67.0% of the participants were on ARBs, and 6.3% had a history of bone fracture. The history of bone fracture was significantly lower in patients with prescribed ARB and remained significant even after multivariable adjustment (odds ratio, 0.68; 95% confidence interval, 0.51-0.93). Other antihypertensive drugs, such as thiazide diuretics, which were reportedly helpful in preventing fractures, did not alter the bone fracture history and did not change among ARB users and non-users. CONCLUSIONS: The present study showed that administering ARB was significantly associated with a lower frequency of bone fracture history.

Association between prevalence of laxative use and history of bone fractures and cardiovascular diseases in patients with chronic kidney disease: the Fukuoka Kidney disease Registry (FKR) study.

BACKGROUND: Constipation is a common complication in patients with chronic kidney disease (CKD) and is involved in the pathogenesis of dysbiosis and progression of CKD. However, little is known about its association with disorders of the bone-cardiovascular axis in patients with CKD. METHODS: We performed a cross-sectional analysis of 3878 patients with CKD using the baseline dataset of the Fukuoka Kidney disease Registry study, as a multicenter, prospective cohort study of pre-dialysis CKD patients. The main exposure of interest was constipation defined as use of at least one type of laxative. The main outcomes were the histories of bone fractures and cardiovascular diseases (CVDs) as manifestations of disorders of the bone-cardiovascular axis. RESULTS: The prevalences of laxative use and histories of bone fractures and CVDs increased as kidney function declined. Among the 3878 patients, 532 (13.7%) patients used laxatives, 235 (6.1%) patients had prior bone fractures, and 1001 (25.8%) patients had prior CVDs. Histories of bone fractures and CVDs were significantly more prevalent among laxative users (P < 0.05). Multivariable-adjusted logistic regression analysis revealed that patients with laxatives had a significantly higher odds ratios for histories of bone fractures and CVDs than those without laxatives [adjusted odds ratios (95% confidence intervals) 1.67 (1.20-2.31) and 1.70 (1.30-2.22), respectively, P < 0.05]. CONCLUSIONS: These results suggest that constipation indicated by laxative use is associated with increased prevalences of historical bone fractures and CVDs in pre-dialysis patients with CKD.

Protective Roles of Xenotropic and Polytropic Retrovirus Receptor 1 (XPR1) in Uremic Vascular Calcification.

Cellular phosphate transporters play critical roles in the pathogenesis of vascular calcification (VC) in chronic kidney disease (CKD). However, the mechanistic link between VC and xenotropic and polytropic receptor 1 (XPR1), a newly identified phosphate exporter, remains unknown. We developed a new mouse model with rapidly progressive uremic VC in C57BL/6 mice and examined the roles of XPR1. The combination of surgical heminephrectomy and 8 weeks of feeding a customized warfarin and adenine-based diet induced extensive aortic VC in almost all mice. The XPR1 mRNA level in the aorta of CKD mice was significantly lower than those in control mice as early as week 2, when there was no apparent VC, which progressively declined thereafter. Dietary phosphate restriction increased XPR1 mRNA expression in the aorta but reduced aortic VC in CKD mice. In cultured vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs), a calcifying medium supplemented with high phosphate and calcium did not affect XPR1 mRNA expression. The XPR1 mRNA expression in cultured VCMCs was also unaffected by administration of indoxyl sulfate or calcitriol deficiency but was decreased by 1-34 parathyroid hormone or fibroblast growth factor 23 supplementation. Furthermore, XPR1 deletion in the cultured VSMCs exacerbated calcification of the extracellular matrix as well as the osteogenic phenotypic switch under the condition of calcifying medium. Our data suggest that XPR1 plays protective roles in the pathogenesis of VC and its decrease in the aorta may contribute to the progression of VC in CKD.

Associations Between Surrogates of Skeletal Muscle Mass and History of Bone Fracture in Patients with Chronic Kidney Disease: The Fukuoka Kidney disease Registry (FKR) Study.

Patients with chronic kidney disease (CKD) are at increased risks of both sarcopenia and fragility fractures. However, information on the association between skeletal muscle mass (SMM) and the risk of bone fractures in patients with CKD is lacking. We performed a cross-sectional analysis of 4146 patients with CKD using the baseline dataset of the Fukuoka Kidney disease Registry Study, as a multicenter, prospective cohort study of pre-dialysis CKD patients. The main measure was estimated SMM (eSMM) calculated using an equation validated by bioelectrical impedance analysis with two independent datasets of 100 and 81 CKD patients. The main outcome was historical bone fractures. The associations between sex-specific quartiles (Q1-Q4) of eSMM and fracture history were assessed by logistic regression analyses. The prevalence of a history of fractures increased and eSMM decreased with progressive CKD stages. Among the 4146 patients, 249 had prior bone fractures, including 111 patients in Q1 (lowest quartile), 65 in Q2, 46 in Q3, and 27 in Q4 (highest quartile). A multivariable-adjusted model revealed that patients in Q1 had a significantly higher odds ratio (95% confidence interval) for bone fracture history than those in Q4 (reference): Q1, 2.77 (1.32-5.80); Q2, 1.95 (1.05-3.65); and Q3, 1.57 (0.90-2.75) (P-value for trend < 0.001). Similar associations were obtained when other skeletal muscle surrogates were applied: serum creatinine to serum cystatin C and daily urinary creatinine excretion. These results suggest that a lower eSMM is associated with an increased prevalence of historical bone fractures in pre-dialysis CKD patients.

Non-invasive fibrosis assessments of non-alcoholic fatty liver disease associated with low estimated glomerular filtration rate among CKD patients: the Fukuoka Kidney disease Registry Study.

BACKGROUND: A growing body of evidence has shown that non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) is associated with chronic kidney disease (CKD). Non-invasive fibrosis assessments of NAFLD such as Fibrosis-4 (FIB-4) index and NAFLD fibrosis score (NFS) have been developed to substitute liver biopsy. Little is known about the association between FIB-4 index or NFS and the components of CKD. METHODS: In the present cross-sectional study, we assessed of 3640 Japanese CKD patients. We examined the association between FIB-4index or NFS and the odds of having low estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR) defined as eGFR < 60 mL/min/1.73 m2 or albuminuria defined as urinary albumin-to-creatinine ratio (UACR) ≥ 30 mg/g. Patients were divided into quartiles according to their baseline FIB-4 index and NFS levels. Linear and logistic regression analysis were conducted, with adjustment for potential confounding factors. RESULTS: FIB-4 index and NFS were negatively associated with eGFR, but not UACR, after adjustment for potential confounding factors. Both FIB-4 index and NFS were significantly associated with low eGFR after adjustment for potential confounding factors. Meanwhile, in the multivariable-adjusted model, no associations were found between FIB-4 index or NFS and albuminuria. The addition of FIB-4 index or NFS to the established clinical CKD risk factors improved diagnostic accuracy of prevalence of low eGFR. We also found that there was a significant trend of higher FIB-4 index and NFS with more advanced renal fibrosis using the kidney biopsy data. CONCLUSIONS: Higher non-invasive fibrosis assessments of NAFLD were associated with higher odds of decreased eGFR.

Association Between Plasma Intact Parathyroid Hormone Levels and the Prevalence of Atrial Fibrillation in Patients With Chronic Kidney Disease　- The Fukuoka Kidney Disease Registry Study.

BACKGROUND: Parathyroid hormone (PTH) has been associated with cardiovascular disorders; however, it is unknown whether plasma PTH concentrations are associated with atrial fibrillation (AF) in patients with chronic kidney disease (CKD).Methods and Results:The present cross-sectional study analyzed baseline data of 3,384 patients registered in the Fukuoka Kidney Disease Registry Study, a Japanese multicenter prospective cohort study of patients with non-dialysis-dependent CKD. The outcome was prevalence of AF, and the main risk factor was plasma intact PTH concentration. Associations between plasma intact PTH concentration quartiles (Q1-Q4, from lowest to highest) and the presence of AF were analyzed using logistic regression. In all, 185 patients had AF; 22, 34, 59, and 70 patients were in Q1, Q2, Q3, and Q4 of PTH concentrations, respectively. The prevalence of AF increased incrementally with increases in plasma intact PTH. In the logistic regression model, patients with higher plasma intact PTH concentrations (Q2-Q4) had higher adjusted odds ratios (95% confidence intervals) for the prevalence of AF relative to the reference group (Q1), namely 1.33 (0.76-2.34), 1.82 ([1.06-3.13), and 1.99 (1.08-3.64), respectively (P=0.016). CONCLUSIONS: Higher plasma intact PTH concentrations were significantly and incrementally associated with an increased prevalence of AF in non-dialysis-dependent CKD patients.

Estimated plasma osmolarity and risk of end-stage kidney disease in patients with IgA nephropathy.

BACKGROUND: Several experimental studies have indicated that increased plasma osmolarity caused by recurrent dehydration is involved in kidney injury via a mechanism, mediated by vasopressin secretion and activation of the aldose reductase pathway. Epidemiologic evidence linking increased plasma osmolarity and the onset of end-stage kidney disease (ESKD), in patients with primary glomerulonephritis, is lacking. METHODS: We retrospectively examined 663 patients with IgA nephropathy (IgAN) diagnosed by kidney biopsy and evaluated the association between estimated plasma osmolarity and ESKD prevalence, using a Cox proportional hazards model. RESULTS: During follow-up (median 80.4 months; interquartile range 22.2-120.1), 73 patients developed ESKD. In a baseline survey, plasma osmolarity was correlated negatively with the mean value of the estimated glomerular filtration rate, but correlated positively with the mean value of urinary protein excretion, systolic blood pressure, and pathologic severity of extracapillary proliferation, in addition to tissue fibrosis and sclerosis. The incidence rate of ESKD increased linearly with increase in plasma osmolarity (P < 0.05 for trend). In multivariate analyses, plasma osmolarity was an independent risk factor for ESKD (hazard ratio for each increment of 5 mOsm/kg in plasma osmolarity 1.56; 95% confidence interval 1.18-2.07) even after adjustment for potential confounders. CONCLUSIONS: Increased plasma osmolarity was associated significantly with an increased risk of ESKD in patients with IgAN. Maintenance of plasma osmolarity by appropriate control of the balance between salt and water may contribute to kidney protection.

Secular trends in the incidence of end-stage renal disease and its risk factors in Japanese patients with immunoglobulin A nephropathy.

Background: There are limited data on secular trends in the incidence of end-stage renal disease (ESRD) and frequencies of its risk factors or treatment modalities in patients with immunoglobulin A nephropathy (IgAN). Methods: This study divided 1255 patients with IgAN into three groups according to the timing of renal biopsy: 1979-89 (n = 232), 1990-99 (n = 574) and 2000-10 (n = 449). The age-adjusted incidence rates, incidence rate ratios and 95% confidence intervals (CIs) for ESRD were calculated by the person-year method and compared using Poisson regression analysis. Results: A total of 63 patients (5.0%) developed ESRD. The age-adjusted incidence of ESRD decreased significantly over time, i.e. 11.5 per 1000 person-years (95% CI 5.4-24.6) in 1979-89, 6.5 per 1000 person-years (95% CI 1.0-25.2) in 1990-99 and 4.2 per 1000 person-years (95% CI 1.0-17.7) in 2000-10. The proportions of patients with preserved renal function and acute-stage inflammatory histologic changes (i.e. endocapillary hypercellularity and extracapillary proliferation) at the timing of biopsy increased over time, as did the rates of prescriptions of renin-angiotensin system blockers and corticosteroids (all P for trend <0.05). The effect of acute inflammatory histologic lesions on renal prognosis was drastically reduced over time. Conclusions: These findings suggest that early diagnosis in the acute inflammatory phase and subsequent aggressive treatment may have contributed to the significant downward trend in the incidence of ESRD in patients with IgAN over three decades.

Modified Creatinine Index and the Risk of Bone Fracture in Patients Undergoing Hemodialysis: The Q-Cohort Study.

BACKGROUND: Hemodialysis patients are at increased risk for bone fracture and sarcopenia. There is close interplay between skeletal muscle and bone. However, it is still unclear whether lower skeletal muscle mass increases the risk for bone fracture. STUDY DESIGN: Cross-sectional study and prospective longitudinal cohort study. SETTING & PARTICIPANTS: An independent cohort of 78 hemodialysis patients in the cross-sectional study and 3,030 prevalent patients undergoing maintenance hemodialysis prospectively followed up for 4 years. PREDICTOR: Skeletal muscle mass measured by bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA) and modified creatinine index, an estimate of skeletal muscle mass based on age, sex, Kt/V for urea, and serum creatinine level. OUTCOMES: Bone fracture at any site. RESULTS: In the cross-sectional study, modified creatinine index was significantly correlated with skeletal muscle mass measured by BIA. During a median follow-up of 3.9 years, 140 patients had bone fracture. When patients were divided into sex-specific quartiles based on modified creatinine index, risk for bone fracture estimated by a Fine-Gray proportional subdistribution hazards model with all-cause death as a competing risk was significantly higher in the lower modified creatinine index quartiles (Q1 and Q2) compared to the highest modified creatinine index quartile (Q4) as the reference value in both sexes (multivariable-adjusted HRs for men were 7.81 [95% CI, 2.63-23.26], 5.48 [95% CI, 2.08-14.40], 2.24 [95% CI, 0.72-7.00], and 1.00 [P for trend < 0.001], and for women were 4.44 [95% CI, 1.50-13.11], 2.33 [95% CI, 0.86-6.31], 1.96 [95% CI, 0.82-4.65], and 1.00 [P for trend = 0.007] for Q1, Q2, Q3, and Q4, respectively). LIMITATIONS: One-time assessment of modified creatinine index; no data for residual kidney function and fracture sites and causes. CONCLUSIONS: Modified creatinine index was correlated with skeletal muscle mass measured by BIA. Lower modified creatinine index was associated with increased risk for bone fracture in male and female hemodialysis patients.

The Fukuoka Kidney disease Registry (FKR) Study: design and methods.

BACKGROUND: Chronic kidney disease (CKD) is an established independent risk factor for progression to end-stage renal disease (ESRD) and incidence of cardiovascular disease (CVD). The onset and progression of CKD are associated with both genetic predisposition and various lifestyle-related factors, but little is known about the influence of genetic-environmental interactions on the incidence of ESRD or CVD in patients with CKD. METHODS: The Fukuoka Kidney disease Registry (FKR) Study is designed as one of the largest prospective, multicenter, observational cohort studies in non-dialysis dependent CKD patients. The FKR Study aims to enroll approximately 5000 individuals at multiple clinical centers and follow them for up to at least 5 years. At baseline, subjects enrolled in the FKR Study will fill out extensive lifestyle-related questionnaires. Further, their health status and treatments will be monitored annually through a research network of nephrology centers. Blood and urine samples, including DNA/RNA, will be collected at the time of enrolment and every 5-years follow-up. CONCLUSIONS: The FKR Study will provide many insights into the onset and progression of CKD, which will suggest hypothesis-driven interventional clinical trials aimed at reducing the burden of CKD. The features of the FKR Study may also facilitate innovative research to identify and validate novel risk factors, including genetic susceptibility and biomarkers, using biomaterials by high-throughput omics technologies.

Association Between Serum Phosphate Levels and Stroke Risk in Patients Undergoing Hemodialysis: The Q-Cohort Study.

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE: The contribution of serum phosphate levels to stroke risk in dialysis patients remains unclear. The present study aimed to elucidate the respective association between serum phosphate levels and the risk of brain hemorrhage or infarction in patients undergoing hemodialysis. METHODS: A total of 3437 patients undergoing hemodialysis were followed up for a median of 3.9 years. The primary outcome was the occurrence of brain hemorrhage or infarction. Patients were divided into 4 groups based on their baseline serum phosphate levels (Q1-Q4). Stroke risk was estimated using a Cox proportional hazards model. RESULTS: During the follow-up period, 75 patients experienced brain hemorrhage and 139 experienced brain infarction. The risk of brain hemorrhage was significantly higher in the highest (Q4) compared with the lowest quartile (Q1) as the reference value (multivariate-adjusted hazard ratio [95% confidence intervals]: Q1, 1.00; Q2, 1.76 [0.79-4.18]; Q3, 1.99 [0.92-4.67]; and Q4, 2.74 [1.27-6.47]; P=0.077 for trend; hazard ratio for every 1 mmol/L increase in serum phosphate level, 2.07 [1.10-3.81]; P=0.025). In contrast, the risk of brain infarction was significantly higher in Q1 (P=0.045) compared with Q3 as the reference value (Q1, 1.65 [1.01-2.73]; Q2, 1.35 [0.82-2.25]; Q3, 1.00; and Q4, 1.30 [0.77-2.20]). CONCLUSIONS: Higher serum phosphate levels were associated with an increased risk of brain hemorrhage, whereas low levels were associated with an increased risk of brain infarction in hemodialysis patients. These results suggest the importance of managing serum phosphate levels within an appropriate range in hemodialysis patients. CLINICAL TRIAL REGISTRATION: URL: http://www.umin.ac.jp/. Unique identifier: UMIN000000556.

Factors Associated with the Serum Myostatin Level in Patients Undergoing Peritoneal Dialysis: Potential Effects of Skeletal Muscle Mass and Vitamin D Receptor Activator Use.

Myostatin is a member of the transforming growth factor-ß family, which regulates synthesis and degradation of skeletal muscle proteins and is associated with the development of sarcopenia. It is up-regulated in the skeletal muscle of chronic kidney disease patients and is considered to be involved in the development of uremic sarcopenia. However, serum myostatin levels have rarely been determined, and the relationship between serum myostatin levels with clinical and metabolic factors remains unknown. This cross-sectional study investigated the association between serum myostatin level and clinical factors in 69 outpatients undergoing peritoneal dialysis. Serum myostatin level was determined by commercially available enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). Univariable and multivariable analysis were conducted to determine factors associated with serum myostatin levels. The factors included age, sex, diabetes mellitus, dialysis history, body mass index, residual kidney function, peritoneal dialysate volume, serum biochemistries, and the use of vitamin D receptor activators (VDRAs). Mean serum myostatin level was 7.59 ± 3.37 ng/mL. There was no association between serum myostatin level and residual kidney function. Serum myostatin levels were significantly and positively associated with lean body mass measured by the creatinine kinetic method and negatively associated with the use of VDRAs after adjustment for potential confounding factors. Our study indicated that serum myostatin levels are associated with skeletal muscle mass and are lower in patients treated with VDRAs. Further studies are necessary to determine the significance of measuring serum myostatin level in patients undergoing peritoneal dialysis.

Comparison of oral versus intravenous vitamin D receptor activator in reducing infection-related mortality in hemodialysis patients: the Q-Cohort Study.

BACKGROUND: Hemodialysis patients who receive vitamin D receptor activator (VDRA) reportedly have better survival after infection than those who do not. However, the optimal route of its administration for minimizing death from infection remains unclear. METHODS: This prospective cohort study aimed to compare the effectiveness of oral versus intravenous VDRA regarding infection-related mortality in 3372 hemodialysis patients. Eligible subjects were divided into the following three groups by route of administration of VDRA: oral (n = 1868), intravenous (n = 492) and not administered (n = 1012). The effect of VDRA on infection-related mortality was examined using a Cox regression model with propensity score-based adjustments. RESULTS: During follow-up (median, 4.0 years), 118 study patients died of infection. There was a significantly lower incidence of death from infection in subjects who received intravenous VDRA than in those who did not receive VDRA; however, oral VDRA did not significantly reduce the risk of mortality from infection compared with those who did not receive VDRA [hazard ratio (HR) for intravenous VDRA, 0.16; 95% confidence interval (CI), 0.10-0.25, and HR for oral VDRA, 0.78; 95% CI, 0.60-1.01]. Direct comparison between the oral and intravenous VDRA groups showed that the intravenous group had significantly better survival than the oral group (HR, 0.39; 95% CI, 0.27-0.62). CONCLUSIONS: Treatment with intravenous VDRA more effectively reduces the incidence of mortality from infection than oral VDRA in hemodialysis patients.

[The pathophysiology of secondary hyperparathyroidism].

Secondary hyperparathyroidism (SHPT) is characterized by the acceleration of bone turnover due to the over-secretion of parathyroid hormone, which is accompanied with parathyroid hyperplasia. The pathogenesis includes the reduced production of calcitriol due to the elevated serum fibroblast growth factor 23 (FGF23) level to maintain phosphate (P) homeostasis, and its resultant hypocalcemia. Although the mechanism parathyroid glands sense P remains unknown, the expressions of calcium (Ca) sensing receptor and vitamin D receptor, which sense serum level of Ca and calcitriol respectively, down-regulate in chronic kidney disease. The rapture of feedback system including these, contributes to the development of SHPT.

Fetuin-A decrease induced by a low-protein diet enhances vascular calcification in uremic rats with hyperphosphatemia.

Although dietary phosphate restriction is important for treating hyperphosphatemia in patients with chronic kidney disease, it remains unclear whether a low-protein diet (LPD), which contains low phosphate, has beneficial effects on malnutrition, inflammation, and vascular calcification. The effects of LPD on inflammation, malnutrition, and vascular calcification were therefore assessed in rats. Rats were fed a normal diet or diets containing 0.3% adenine and low/normal protein and low/high phosphate. After 6 wk, serum and urinary biochemical parameters, systemic inflammation, and vascular calcification were examined. The protective effect of fetuin-A and albumin were assessed in cultured vascular smooth muscle cells. Rats fed the diet containing 0.3% adenine developed severe azotemia. LPD in rats fed high phosphate induced malnutrition (decreases in body weight, food intake, serum albumin and fetuin-A levels, and urinary creatinine excretion) and systemic inflammation (increases in serum tumor necrosis factor-α and urinary oxidative stress marker). LPD decreased the serum fetuin-A level and fetuin-A synthesis in the liver and increased serum calcium-phosphate precipitates. A high-phosphate diet increased aortic calcium content, which was enhanced by LPD. Reduced fetal calf serum in the medium of cultured vascular smooth muscle cells enhanced phosphate-induced formation of calcium-phosphate precipitates in the media and calcification of vascular smooth muscle cells, both of which were prevented by fetuin-A administration. Our results suggest that phosphate restriction by restricting dietary protein promotes vascular calcification by lowering the systemic fetuin-A level and increasing serum calcium-phosphate precipitates and induces inflammation and malnutrition in uremic rats fed a high-phosphate diet.

Spironolactone ameliorates arterial medial calcification in uremic rats: the role of mineralocorticoid receptor signaling in vascular calcification.

Vascular calcification (VC) is a critical complication in patients with chronic kidney disease (CKD). The effects of spironolactone (SPL), a mineralocorticoid receptor (MR) antagonist, on VC have not been fully investigated in CKD. The present in vivo study determined the protective effects of SPL on VC in CKD rats. Rats were divided into a control group and four groups of rats with adenine-induced CKD. Three groups were treated with 0, 50, and 100 mg·kg(-1)·day(-1) SPL for 8 wk, and one group was treated with 100 mg·kg(-1)·day(-1) SPL for the last 2 wk of the 8-wk treatment period. After 8 wk, CKD rats developed azotemia and hyperphosphatemia, with increases in the expression of serum and glucocorticoid-regulated kinase-1 and sodium-phosphate cotransporter, in inflammation and oxidative stress level, in osteogenic signaling and apoptosis, and in aortic calcification, compared with control rats. SPL dose dependently decreased these changes in the aortas, concomitant with improvements in renal inflammation, tubulointerstitial nephritis, and kidney function. SPL neither lowered blood pressure level nor induced hyperkalemia. Treatment of CKD rats for the last 2 wk with 100 mg·kg(-1)·day(-1) SPL attenuated VC compared with CKD rats with the same degree of kidney function and hyperphosphatemia. In conclusion, SPL dose dependently inhibits the progression of VC by suppressing MR signaling, local inflammation, osteogenic transition, and apoptosis in the aortas of CKD rats.

Factors associated with serum soluble inhibitors of Wnt-ß-catenin signaling (sclerostin and dickkopf-1) in patients undergoing peritoneal dialysis.

AIM: Sclerostin and dickkopf-1 (Dkk-1) are soluble inhibitors of Wnt-ß-catenin signaling and are involved in decreased bone formation and bone volume in patients with various bone diseases. The clinical characteristics of sclerostin and Dkk-1 and their impacts on mineral and bone metabolism remain undetermined in patients undergoing peritoneal dialysis (PD). METHODS: This cross-sectional study investigated the association between serum sclerostin and Dkk-1 levels and mineral disorders in 74 outpatients under PD treatment. Levels of sclerostin and Dkk-1 in serum, urine, and peritoneal dialysate were determined using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay kits. The associations between serum sclerostin and Dkk-1 levels and biochemical parameters were evaluated by linear regression analyses. RESULTS: Median serum sclerostin and Dkk-1 levels were 138 pmol/L (range, 98.3-195.9 pmol/L) and 38.8 pmol/L (range, 28.5-47.1 pmol/L), respectively. Both sclerostin and Dkk-1 were excreted into urine and peritoneal dialysate. Multivariable linear regression analyses showed that serum sclerostin level was significantly associated with age, sex, parathyroid hormone level, and renal Kt/V. In contrast, serum Dkk-1 level was associated with platelet count and serum fibroblast growth factor 23 level but not with any of the bone metabolic markers. CONCLUSION: Serum sclerostin was associated with serum intact parathyroid hormone, while Dkk-1 was associated with serum fibroblast growth factor 23 in patients undergoing PD. The utility of determining soluble Wnt-ß-catenin inhibitors levels in patients undergoing PD requires further investigation.

Phosphate overload directly induces systemic inflammation and malnutrition as well as vascular calcification in uremia.

Hyperphosphatemia contributes to increased cardiovascular mortality through vascular calcification (VC) in patients with chronic kidney disease (CKD). Malnutrition and inflammation are also closely linked to an increased risk of cardiovascular death in CKD. However, the effects of Pi overload on inflammation and malnutrition remain to be elucidated. The aim of the present study was to investigate the effects of dietary Pi loading on the interactions among inflammation, malnutrition, and VC in CKD. We used control rats fed normal diets and adenine-induced CKD rats fed diets with different Pi concentrations ranging from 0.3% to 1.2% for 8 wk. CKD rats showed dietary Pi concentration-dependent increases in serum and tissue levels of TNF-α and urinary and tissue levels of oxidative stress markers and developed malnutrition (decrease in body weight, serum albumin, and urinary creatinine excretion), VC, and premature death without affecting kidney function. Treatment with 6% lanthanum carbonate blunted almost all changes induced by Pi overload. Regression analysis showed that serum Pi levels closely correlated with the extent of inflammation, malnutrition, and VC. Also, in cultured human vascular smooth muscle cells, high-Pi medium directly increased the expression of TNF-α in advance of the increase in osteochondrogenic markers. Our data suggest that dietary Pi overload induces systemic inflammation and malnutrition, accompanied by VC and premature death in CKD, and that inhibition of Pi loading through dietary or pharmacological interventions or anti-inflammatory therapy may be a promising treatment for the prevention of malnutrition-inflammation-atherosclerosis syndrome.