Evaluation of deep eutectic solvents in the synthesis of molecularly imprinted fibers for the solid-phase microextraction of triazines in soil samples.

Nowadays, molecularly imprinted polymers (MIPs) are well established and are considered excellent materials for performing selective extractions. However, with the progressive implementation of the principles of green chemistry, it is necessary to find greener alternatives for both the synthesis and further use of MIPs in sample preparation. Accordingly, in the present work, different deep eutectic solvents (DES, both hydrophilic and hydrophobic), as an alternative to conventional organic solvents (i.e., toluene), were evaluated as porogens for the synthesis of imprinted fibers (monoliths), using fused silica capillaries as molds, for solid-phase microextraction (SPME). From this study, the polymer prepared with propazine (dummy template), methacrylic acid (monomer), ethylene glycol dimethacrylate (cross-linker), and a formic acid:L-menthol (1:1) DES (porogen) showed the best performance for selective rebinding of triazines. After optimization of the different variables involved in SPME, the new imprinted fibers were successfully applied to the extraction of target analytes (desisopropylatrazine, desethylatrazine, simazine, and atrazine) from soil sample extracts, providing relative recoveries ranging from 75.7 to 120.1%, reaching limits of detection within the range of 6.2-15.7 ng g-1, depending upon the analyte.

Recent advances and future trends in molecularly imprinted polymers-based sample preparation.

Molecular imprinting technology is a well-established technique for the obtainment of tailor-made polymers, so-called molecularly imprinted polymers, with a predetermined selectivity towards a target analyte or structurally related compounds. Accordingly, molecularly imprinted polymers are considered excellent materials for sample preparation providing unprecedented selectivity to analytical methods. However, the use of molecularly imprinted polymers in sample preparation still presents some shortcomings derived from the synthesis procedure itself limiting its general applicability. In this regard, molecularly imprinted polymers use to display binding sites heterogeneity and slow diffusion mass transfer of analytes to the imprinted sites affecting their overall performance. Besides, the performance of molecularly imprinted polymers in organic solvents is excellent, but their selective binding ability in aqueous media is considerably reduced. Accordingly, the present review pretends to provide an updated overview of the recent advances and trends of molecularly imprinted polymers-based extraction, focusing on those strategies proposed for the improvement of mass transfer and selective recognition in aqueous media. Besides, with the progressive implementation of Green Chemistry principles, the different steps and strategies for the preparation of molecularly imprinted polymers are reviewed from a green perspective.

Evaluation of 2-hydroxyethyl methacrylate as comonomer in the preparation of water-compatible molecularly imprinted polymers for triazinic herbicides.

In this work, the preparation and evaluation of water-compatible molecularly imprinted polymers for triazines using 2-hydroxyethyl methacrylate and methacrylic acid as comonomers is described. Four sets of molecularly imprinted and non-imprinted polymers for propazine were prepared at varying monomer molar ratios (from 4:0 to 1:3), and evaluated for the recognition of several triazines directly in aqueous media. The evaluation was performed by loading 1 mL of an aqueous solution containing 500 ng of each selected triazine, washing with 500 µL of acetonitrile, and eluting with 500 µL of methanol followed by 2 × 500 µL of a solution of methanol containing 10% of acetic acid. Final determinations were performed by high-performance liquid chromatography-ultraviolet detection. Improvement in molecular recognition of triazines in water was obtained on those molecularly imprinted polymers incorporating 2-hydroxyethyl methacrylate in 3:1 or 2:2 molar ratios, being the former selected as optimum providing recoveries for propazine up to 80%. A molecularly imprinted solid-phase extraction protocol was developed to ensure that triazines-selective recognition takes place inside selective binding sites in pure water media. Finally, the developed method was successfully applied to the determination of the selected triazines in environmental waters providing limits of detection from 0.16 and the 0.5 µg/L concentration range.

Surface modified-magnetic nanoparticles by molecular imprinting for the dispersive solid-phase extraction of triazines from environmental waters.

Magnetic nanoparticles have been surface modified by molecular imprinting and evaluated as selective sorbents for the extraction of triazines from environmental waters. The use of propazine as template allowed us to synthesize a selective material able to simultaneously recognize and selective extract not only the template but also several other herbicides of the same family. A magnetic molecularly imprinted-based dispersive solid-phase extraction procedure was developed and fully optimized. Magnetic molecularly imprinted polymer particles can be easily collected and separated from liquid solvents and samples with the help of an external magnetic field, avoiding in that way any centrifugation or filtration steps, which represents a remarkable advantage over traditional procedures. Under optimum conditions, selective extraction of several triazines (cyanazine, simazine, atrazine, propazine, and terbutylazine) from environmental water samples was performed prior to final determination by high-performance liquid chromatography with diode-array detection. Recoveries for the studied triazines were within the range of 75.2-94.1%, with relative standard deviations lower than 11.3% (n = 3). The limits of detection were within 0.16-0.51 µg/L, depending upon the triazine and the type of sample analyzed.

Molecularly imprinted stir bars for selective extraction of thiabendazole in citrus samples.

Stir-bar sorptive extraction is based on the partitioning of target analytes between the sample (mostly aqueous-based liquid samples) and a stationary phase-coated magnetic stir bar. Until now, only PDMS-coated stir bars are commercially available, restricting the range of applications to the non-selective extraction of hydrophobic compounds due to the apolar character of PDMS. In this work, a novel stir bar coated with molecularly imprinted polymer as selective extraction phase for sorptive extraction of thiabendazole (TBZ) was developed. Two different procedures, based on physical or chemical coating, were assessed for the preparation of molecularly imprinted stir bars. Under optimum conditions, recoveries achieved both in imprinted and non-imprinted polymer stir bars obtained by physical coating were very low, whereas TBZ was favourably retained by imprinted over non-imprinted polymer stir bars obtained by chemical coating and thus the latter approach was used in further studies. Different parameters affecting both stir-bars preparation (i.e. cross-linker, porogen, polymerization time) and the subsequent selective extraction of TBZ (i.e. washing, loading and elution solvents, extraction time) were properly optimized. The molecularly imprinted coated stir bars were applied to the extraction of TBZ from citrus samples (orange, lemon and citrus juices) allowing its final determination at concentrations levels according to current regulations.

Determination of polypeptide antibiotics in animal tissues using liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry based on in-line molecularly imprinted solid-phase extraction.

Effective purification and enrichment of polypeptide antibiotics in animal tissues is always a challenge, due to the co-extraction of other endogenous peptides which usually interfere their final determination. In this study, a molecularly imprinted column was prepared by packing polymyxin E-imprinted particles into a 100 mm × 4.6 mm i.d. HPLC column. The as-prepared imprinted columns were able to tolerate 100% aqueous phase and exhibited good stability and high column efficiency. Polypeptides antibiotics with similar molecular size or spatial structure to polymyxin E were well retained by the imprinted column, suggesting class selectivity. After optimization of mobile phase conditions of imprinted column, polypeptide antibiotics in animal tissue extracts were enriched and cleaned up by in-line molecularly imprinted solid-phase extraction, allowing the screening of target analytes in complex samples at low concentration levels by UV detection. Eluate fraction from the imprinted column was collected, and further dried and re-dissolved with methanol-0.5% formic acid aqueous solution (80:20, v/v) for final LC-MS/MS analysis. Analysis was accomplished using multiple reaction monitoring (MRM) in positive electrospray ionization mode and analytes quantified using the matrix-matched external calibration curves. The results showed high correlation coefficients for target analytes in the linear range of 2 ∼ 200 µg kg-1. At four different concentration levels (limit of quantification, 50, 100 and 200 µg kg-1), recoveries of four polypeptide antibiotics in swine, cattle and chicken muscles ranged from 66.7 to 94.5% with relative standard deviations lower than 16.0%. The limits of detection (LOD) were 2.0 ∼ 4.0 µg/kg, depending upon the analyte and sample. Compared with a conventional pretreatment method, the imprinted column was able to remove more impurities and to significantly reduce matrix effects, allowing the accurate analysis of polypeptide antibiotics.

Synthesis of core-shell molecularly imprinted polymer microspheres by precipitation polymerization for the inline molecularly imprinted solid-phase extraction of thiabendazole from citrus fruits and orange juice samples.

In this work, the synthesis of molecularly imprinted polymer microspheres with narrow particle size distributions and core-shell morphology by a two-step precipitation polymerization procedure is described. Polydivinylbenzene (poly DVB-80) core particles were used as seed particles in the production of molecularly imprinted polymer shells by copolymerization of divinylbenzene-80 with methacrylic acid in the presence of thiabendazole (TBZ) and an appropriate porogen. Thereafter, polymer particles were packed into refillable stainless steel HPLC columns used in the development of an inline molecularly imprinted SPE method for the determination of TBZ in citrus fruits and orange juice samples. Under optimized chromatographic conditions, recoveries of TBZ within the range 81.1-106.4%, depending upon the sample, were obtained, with RSDs lower than 10%. This novel method permits the unequivocal determination of TBZ in the samples under study, according to the maximum residue levels allowed within Europe, in less than 20 min and without any need for a clean-up step in the analytical protocol.

Synthesis of Molecularly Imprinted Polymers for the Selective Extraction of Polymyxins from Environmental Water Samples.

The authors wish to make a change to the published paper [...].

Synthesis of Molecularly Imprinted Polymers for the Selective Extraction of Polymyxins from Environmental Water Samples.

The emergence of colistin resistance gen has aroused public concern. It is significant to assess the concentrations of polymyxins residues in aquatic environment since resistant bacteria carrying colistin resistance gen are frequently isolated from wastewater; surface water and ground water. However; no literature on the determination of polymyxins in water is available; probably due to the absence of an efficient extraction method. Accordingly; molecularly imprinted polymers were synthesized by precipitation polymerization with colistin as the template. The polymers were successfully used as sorbents for the determination of polymyxins from water based on molecularly imprinted solid-phase extraction and high-performance liquid chromatography-ultraviolet detection. The molecularly imprinted cartridge showed excellent affinity and cross-reactivity to analytes in aqueous media. Recoveries obtained from water samples were between 65.9% and 90.1%, with relative standard deviations lower than 10.2%. Limits of detection were between 1.0 and 2.0 µg L-1 concentration levels. Compared with C18 cartridge; the molecularly imprinted cartridge could remove more interference from co-extracted matrices. This method is practical for the routine monitoring of polymyxin residues in environmental water; which will benefit studies on drug-resistance and occurrence of polymyxins in the environment.

Selective sample preparation for the analysis of (fluoro)quinolones in baby food: molecularly imprinted polymers versus anion-exchange resins.

In this work, an analytical method for simultaneous analysis of several quinolones (cinoxacin, oxolinic acid, nalidixic acid, and flumequine) and fluoroquinolones (norfloxacin, enrofloxacin, enoxacin, ciprofloxacin, and danofloxacin) in baby-food samples is described for the first time. The method is based on isolation of these analytes by ultrasound-assisted extraction procedure followed by a solid-phase extraction sample clean-up step and final determination of the analytes by HPLC using UV detection. For the extraction step, 2 g baby food was mixed with methanol in a centrifuge tube and one single extraction cycle of 15 min at room temperature was carried out. After centrifugation, supernatant was collected and two different solid-phase extraction procedures were developed and evaluated for sample clean-up. The first was based on use of strong anion-exchange cartridges whereas the second was based on use of a ciprofloxacin-imprinted polymer. Both sample clean-up procedures had their own advantages and drawbacks, and the analytical performance and applicability of each procedure was established and properly discussed. The anion-exchange resin-based method enabled simultaneous determination of quinolones and fluoroquinolones, reaching limits of detection ranging from 0.03 to 0.11 microg g(-1). In contrast, the use of a ciprofloxacin-imprinted polymer did provide selectivity towards fluoroquinolones, leading to chromatograms free from co-extractives reaching limits of detection one order of magnitude lower than those obtained by the first approach.

Molecularly imprinted polymers for solid-phase microextraction.

Solid-phase microextraction (SPME) is widely used in analytical laboratories for the analysis of organic compounds, thanks to its simplicity and versatility. However, the current commercially available fibers are based on nonselective sorbents. Molecularly imprinted polymers (MIPs) are stable polymers with selective molecular recognition abilities, provided by the template used during their synthesis. In the present review, the different strategies followed during the last years for the obtainment of MIP fibers to be used in SPME are described. The advantages and drawbacks of each methodology as well as the future expected trends are discussed.

Determination of nonylphenol and nonylphenol ethoxylates in wastewater using MEKC.

Nonylphenol ethoxylates (NPEO(x)) are surfactants which are used worldwide and can be transformed in the environment by microorganisms to form nonylphenol (NP). Analysis of these compounds was carried out with micellar electrokinetic capillary chromatography (MEKC). Different parameters such as background electrolyte (BGE) solution, pH, type of surfactant, and sample stacking were optimized. The use of CHES (20 mM, pH 9.1) in combination with 50 mM sodium cholate as a surfactant as BGE solution, together with sample stacking using 50 mM NaCl in the sample and an injection time of 20 s, provided the best separation of the compounds studied. The method was applied to the determination of target analytes in two types of sludge water coming from two steps of a wastewater treatment plant. Liquid-liquid extraction was carried out using toluene as solvent, resulting in recoveries around 100% for all studied analytes. The presence of NPEO(x) was observed in the first step of the sludge water treatment, based on migration time and UV spectra. Identification was confirmed using tandem MS. LOQs of the studied compounds were in the range of 12.7 to 30.8 ng/mL, which is satisfactory for the analysis of real wastewater samples.

Molecularly imprinted polymer monolith containing magnetic nanoparticles for the stir-bar sorptive extraction of thiabendazole and carbendazim from orange samples.

In this work, a novel molecularly imprinted stir-bar was developed for the stir-bar sorptive extraction (SBSE) of thiabendazole (TBZ) and carbendazim (CBZ) from orange samples. Magnetic nanoparticles were surface modified with oleic acid and then encapsulated by a silica shell using a conventional sol-gel procedure. Subsequently, nanoparticles were functionalized with methacrylate functionalities by grafting onto the particles surface. Finally, the modified magnetic nanoparticles were entrapped in a polymer monolith synthetized by copolymerization with the imprinting polymerization mixture using a glass vial insert as a mold. Variables affecting the polymerization and rebinding conditions of target analytes were optimized. The uptake capacity for the template (TBZ) was evaluated as well as the cross-reactivity for the related compound CBZ by rebinding experiments. Finally, the proposed magnetic imprinted monolith was applied to the SBSE of TBZ and CBZ from orange sample extracts providing a remarkable clean-up ability. The calculated detection limit were 0.13 and 0.10 mg kg-1 for CBZ and TBZ respectively, low enough to satisfactory analysis of both compounds in orange samples according to current European Union regulations.

Molecularly imprinted capillary electrochromatography for selective determination of thiabendazole in citrus samples.

In this work, the suitability of the combination of molecular imprinting and capillary electrochromatography (MIP-CEC) to be used as powerful tool in environmental or food analysis has been for the first time studied and successfully demonstrated. A molecularly imprinted monolith (MIM) has been synthesised and evaluated as stationary phase for the selective determination of the fungicide thiabendazole (TBZ) in citrus samples by non-aqueous capillary electrochromatography. The influence of the mobile phase composition, the voltage of the power supply and the separation temperature on the recognition of TBZ by the imprinted polymer has been evaluated, and the imprint effect in the MIM was clearly demonstrated. Once optimum recognition conditions were established, other variables affecting mechanical properties and chromatographic performance of MIM were adjusted using computational approach. The high selectivity achieved by the MIP-CEC developed procedure allowed unambiguous detection and quantification of TBZ in citrus samples by direct injection of the crude sample extracts, without any previous clean-up, in less than 6 min. The developed method was properly validated and the calculated detection limits were below the established maximum residue limits (MRLs), clearly demonstrating the suitability of the method to be used for the control of the selected fungicide.

Molecularly imprinted polymer for selective extraction of endocrine disrupters nonylphenol and its ethoxylated derivates from environmental solids.

Nonylphenol isomers (NP), linear nonylphenol (4-n-NP) and NP short chain ethoxylated derivates (NPEO1 and NPEO2) are degradation products of nonylphenol polyethoxylates, a worldwide used group of surfactants. All of them are considered endocrine disrupters due to their ability to mimic natural estrogens. In this paper, the preparation and evaluation of several 4-n-NP molecularly imprinted polymers (MIPs) for the selective extraction and clean-up of 4-n-NP, NP, NPEO1 and NPEO2 from complex environmental solid samples is described. Among the different combinations tested, a methacrylic acid-based imprinted polymer prepared in toluene provided the better performance for molecularly imprinted SPE (MISPE). Under optimum MISPE conditions, the polymer was able to selectively retain not only linear NP but also the endocrine disruptors NPEO1, NPEO2 and NP with recoveries ranging from 60 to 100%, depending upon the analyte. The developed MISPE procedure was successfully used for the determination of 4-n-NP, NP, NPEO1 and NPEO2 in sediments and sludge samples at concentration levels according to data reported in the literature for incurred samples. Finally, various sludge samples collected at five different sewage treatment plants from Madrid and commercial sludge for agriculture purposes were analysed. The measured concentrations of the different compounds varied from 3.7 to 107.5 mg/kg depending upon the analyte and the sample.

Molecular imprinting-based separation methods for selective analysis of fluoroquinolones in soils.

Molecularly imprinted polymers (MIPs) for fluoroquinolone antibiotics (FQs) have been synthesised in one single preparative step by precipitation polymerisation using ciprofloxacin (CIP) as template. Combinations of methacrylic acid (MAA) or 4-vinylpyridine (VP) as functional monomers, ethylene glycol dimethacrylate as crosslinker and dichloromethane, methanol, acetonitrile or toluene as porogens were tested. The experiments carried out by molecularly imprinted solid-phase extraction (MISPE) in cartridges did not allow to detect any imprint effect in the VP-based polymers whereas it was clearly observed in the MAA-based polymers. Among them, the MIP prepared in methanol using MAA as monomer showed the best performance and was chosen for further experiments. The ability of the selected MIP for the selective recognition of other widely used FQs (enoxacin, norfloxacin, danofloxacin and enrofloxacin) and quinolones (Qs) (cinoxacin, flumequine, nalidixic acid and oxolinic acid) was evaluated. The obtained results revealed the high selectivity of the obtained polymer, which was able to distinguish between FQs, that were recognised and retained onto the MIP cartridge, and Qs, which were washed out during loading and washing steps. The MIP was then packed into a stainless steel column (50mmx4.6mm i.d.) and evaluated as chromatography column for screening of FQs in soil samples. The mobile phase composition, flow rate, and the elution profile were then optimised in order to improve peak shape without sacrifying imprinting factor. Finally, under optimised conditions, soil samples spiked with CIP or with a mixture of fluoroquinolones in concentration of 0.5microgg(-1) were successfully analysed by the developed MIP-based procedures.

Molecularly imprinted polymer monolith containing magnetic nanoparticles for the stir-bar sorptive extraction of triazines from environmental soil samples.

In this work, novel molecularly imprinted stir-bars based upon the entrapment of modified magnetic nanoparticles within an imprinted polymer monolith is developed for stir-bar sorptive extraction (SBSE). Firstly, magnetic nanoparticles were surface modified with oleic acid followed by encapsulation inside a silica network. Then, vinyl-groups were grafted onto the particles surface for the subsequent copolymerization with the imprinting polymerization mixture using a glass vial insert as a mold. As a result, the obtained imprinted monolith presented magnetic properties allowing its use as magnetic stir-bar. Variables affecting both polymer morphology (i.e., amount of magnetic nanoparticles, polymerization time) and binding-elution conditions of target analytes (i.e., solvents, time) was carefully optimized. Optimum imprinted stir-bars were evaluated for the SBSE of triazines in soil sample extracts. Recoveries, at 16ngg-1 concentration level, ranged from 2.4 to 8.7% with relative standard deviations lower than 15% (n=3). Although low recoveries were obtained, the high selectivity provided by the new molecularly imprinted stir-bars allowed reaching detection limits below 7.5ngg-1 by liquid chromatography coupled to UV detection.

Molecularly imprinted polymer-coated hollow fiber membrane for the microextraction of triazines directly from environmental waters.

In this work, novel molecularly imprinted polymer-coated hollow fibers (MIP-HFs) have been prepared and evaluated for the development of a micro-solid phase extraction method for the analysis of triazines in aqueous samples using high performance liquid chromatography and UV detection. The proposed extraction method combines liquid-liquid microextraction and molecular imprinting technology. In brief, a thin film of toluene is immobilised in the pores of the obtained MIP-HF. Afterwards, the conditioned MIP-HF is immersed in the water sample. Under stirring for a certain time, the target analytes are liquid-liquid extracted from the sample to the immobilised toluene and then these diffuse to the specific binding sites of the MIP. The effect of various experimental parameters as time and stirring-rate and salting-out effect among others, were studied for the establishment of optimum rebinding conditions. Recoveries for seven triazines tested in 100mL pure water samples spiked with 15 µg L(-1) of each triazine were within 0.8-6.9%, with a relative standard deviation (RSD)<10% (n=3). The detection limits (LODs) were within 0.05-0.1 µg L(-1), depending upon the triazine. The proposed methodology was successfully applied to extract the triazines from spiked tap and river water samples at µg L(-1) concentration level. The mircroextraction procedure with the developed MIP-HFs overcomes the typical low performance and lack of selective recognition of MIPs in aqueous media, allowing the determination of triazines in environmental waters at expected real concentration levels.

Trace enrichment of (fluoro)quinolone antibiotics in surface waters by solid-phase extraction and their determination by liquid chromatography-ultraviolet detection.

A new and simple analytical methodology for the simultaneous analysis of acidic and zwitterionic (fluoro)quinolones in surface waters at trace concentration level is presented. The method is based on the preconcentration of these analytes by a solid-phase extraction procedure and their subsequent quantification by liquid chromatography using ultraviolet detection. The breakthrough volumes of the selected (fluoro)quinolones in four different sorbents--C18, styrenedivinylbenzene (SDB), C18-cation-exchange and SDB-cation-exchange--have been evaluated and varied between 25 and 150 ml depending on the antibiotic and the sorbent used. An exhaustive study of the influence of sample pH on the preconcentration step has been carried out in order to find a suitable procedure for extraction of acidic and zwitterionic FQs in one single step. Under optimum conditions, it was possible to percolate up to 250 ml of water solution onto both C18 and SDB-cation-exchange cartridges with quantitative recoveries for all the analytes tested. However, matrix components of the surface water samples analysed negatively affected the recoveries of the analytes in the SDB-cation-exchange cartridge and thus, C18 cartridges were finally selected for the analysis of the (fluoro)quinolones in lake and river water. The limits of detection achieved with this procedure varied between 8 and 20 ng l(-1) proving its suitability for the determination of the (fluoro)quinolones in water samples at a realistic environmental concentration level.

Molecularly imprinted polymer grafted to porous polyethylene frits: a new selective solid-phase extraction format.

In this paper, a novel format for selective solid-phase extraction based on a molecularly imprinted polymer (MIP) is described. A small amount of MIP has been synthesized within the pores of commercial polyethylene (PE) frits and attached to its surface using benzophenone (BP), a photo-initiator capable to start the polymerisation from the surface of the support material. Key properties affecting the obtainment of a proper polymeric layer, such as polymerisation time and kind of cross-linker were optimised. The developed imprinted material has been applied as a selective sorbent for cleaning extracts of thiabendazole (TBZ), as model compound, from citrus samples. The use of different solvents for loading the analyte in the imprinted frits was investigated, as well as the binding capacity of the imprinted polymer. Imprinted frits showed good selectivity when loads were performed using toluene and a linear relationship was obtained for the target analyte up to 1000 ng of loaded analyte. Prepared composite material was applied to the SPE of TBZ in real samples extracts, showing an impressive clean-up ability. Calibrations showed good linearity in the concentration range of 0.05-5.00 µg g(-1), referred to the original solid sample, and the regression coefficients obtained were greater than 0.996. The calculated detection limit was 0.016 µg g(-1), low enough to satisfactory analysis of TBZ in real samples. RSDs at different spiking levels ranged below 15% in all the cases and imprinted frits were reusable without loss in their performance.