IL-3 in the development and function of basophils.

The ß common chain (ßc) cytokine family includes granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF), interleukin-3 (IL-3) and IL-5, all of which use ßc as key signaling receptor subunit. GM-CSF, IL-3 and IL-5 have specific roles as hematopoietic growth factors. IL-3 binds with high affinity to the IL-3 receptor α (IL-3Rα/CD123) and then associates with the ßc subunit. IL-3 is mainly synthesized by different subsets of T cells, but is also produced by several other immune [basophils, dendritic cells (DCs), mast cells, etc.] and non-immune cells (microglia and astrocytes). The IL-3Rα is also expressed by immune (basophils, eosinophils, mast cells, DCs, monocytes, and megacaryocytes) and non-immune cells (endothelial cells and neuronal cells). IL-3 is the most important growth and activating factor for human and mouse basophils, primary effector cells of allergic disorders. IL-3-activated basophils and mast cells are also involved in different chronic inflammatory disorders, infections, and several types of cancer. IL-3 induces the release of cytokines (i.e., IL-4, IL-13, CXCL8) from human basophils and preincubation of basophils with IL-3 potentiates the release of proinflammatory mediators and cytokines from IgE- and C5a-activated basophils. IL-3 synergistically potentiates IL-33-induced mediator release from human basophils. IL-3 plays a pathogenic role in several hematologic cancers and may contribute to autoimmune and cardiac disorders. Several IL-3Rα/CD123 targeting molecules have shown some efficacy in the treatment of hematologic malignancies.

Airway remodelling in asthma and the epithelium: on the edge of a new era.

Asthma is a chronic, heterogeneous disease of the airways, often characterised by structural changes known collectively as airway remodelling. In response to environmental insults, including pathogens, allergens and pollutants, the epithelium can initiate remodelling via an inflammatory cascade involving a variety of mediators that have downstream effects on both structural and immune cells. These mediators include the epithelial cytokines thymic stromal lymphopoietin, interleukin (IL)-33 and IL-25, which facilitate airway remodelling through cross-talk between epithelial cells and fibroblasts, and between mast cells and airway smooth muscle cells, as well as through signalling with immune cells such as macrophages. The epithelium can also initiate airway remodelling independently of inflammation in response to the mechanical stress present during bronchoconstriction. Furthermore, genetic and epigenetic alterations to epithelial components are believed to influence remodelling. Here, we review recent advances in our understanding of the roles of the epithelium and epithelial cytokines in driving airway remodelling, facilitated by developments in genetic sequencing and imaging techniques. We also explore how new and existing therapeutics that target the epithelium and epithelial cytokines could modify airway remodelling.

Advancing precision medicine in asthma: Evolution of treatment outcomes.

The article discusses the historical evolution of asthma treatment and highlights recent advancements in personalized medicine, specifically the use of biologics in severe asthma therapy and its potential combination with allergen immunotherapy (AIT). One of the major breakthroughs of biologics is their potential effect on airway remodeling, a crucial aspect of asthma chronicity. The article introduces the concept of disease-modifying antiasthmatic drugs, which aim to modify the course of asthma and possibly modulate or prevent airway remodeling. Furthermore, the critical importance of patient-centered outcome measures to evaluate the efficacy and effectiveness of asthma treatments is emphasized, with the innovative concept of asthma remission introduced as a potential outcome. Recent studies suggest that AIT can be used as an additional therapy to biologic agents for the treatment of allergic asthma. The combination of these treatments has been shown to induce improved clinical outcomes. However, AIT is actually not recommended for use in patients with severe asthma, but encouraging results from studies investigating the combined use of AIT and biologics indicate a novel approach to exploring these treatment modalities. In conclusion, the introduction of biologics and AIT has changed the scenario of respiratory allergy treatment, from a "one size fits all" approach to embracing "individual treatments."

Thymic Stromal Lymphopoietin (TSLP) Is Cleaved by Human Mast Cell Tryptase and Chymase.

Thymic stromal lymphopoietin (TSLP), mainly expressed by epithelial cells, plays a central role in asthma. In humans, TSLP exists in two variants: the long form TSLP (lfTSLP) and a shorter TSLP isoform (sfTSLP). Macrophages (HLMs) and mast cells (HLMCs) are in close proximity in the human lung and play key roles in asthma. We evaluated the early proteolytic effects of tryptase and chymase released by HLMCs on TSLP by mass spectrometry. We also investigated whether TSLP and its fragments generated by these enzymes induce angiogenic factor release from HLMs. Mass spectrometry (MS) allowed the identification of TSLP cleavage sites caused by tryptase and chymase. Recombinant human TSLP treated with recombinant tryptase showed the production of 1-97 and 98-132 fragments. Recombinant chymase treatment of TSLP generated two peptides, 1-36 and 37-132. lfTSLP induced the release of VEGF-A, the most potent angiogenic factor, from HLMs. By contrast, the four TSLP fragments generated by tryptase and chymase failed to activate HLMs. Long-term TSLP incubation with furin generated two peptides devoid of activating property on HLMs. These results unveil an intricate interplay between mast cell-derived proteases and TSLP. These findings have potential relevance in understanding novel aspects of asthma pathobiology.

Neutrophil extracellular traps in cancer.

Beyond their well-known functions in the acute phases of the immune response, neutrophils play important roles in the various phases of tumor initiation and progression, through the release of their stored or newly synthesized mediators. In addition to reactive oxygen species, cytokines, chemokines, granule proteins and lipid mediators, neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs) can also be released upon neutrophil activation. NET formation can be achieved through a cell-death process or in association with the release of mitochondrial DNA from viable neutrophils. NETs are described as extracellular fibers of DNA and decorating proteins responsible for trapping and killing extracellular pathogens, playing a protective role in the antimicrobial defense. There is increasing evidence, however, that NETs play multiple roles in the scenario of cancer-related inflammation. For instance, NETs directly or indirectly promote tumor growth and progression, fostering tumor spread at distant sites and shielding cancer cells thus preventing the effects of cytotoxic lymphocytes. NETs can also promote tumor angiogenesis and cancer-associated thrombosis. On the other hand, there is some evidence that NETs may play anti-inflammatory and anti-tumorigenic roles. In this review, we focus on the main mechanisms underlying the emerging effects of NETs in cancer initiation and progression.

Molecular targets of tyrosine kinase inhibitors in thyroid cancer.

Thyroid cancer (TC) is the eighth most frequently diagnosed cancer worldwide with a rising incidence in the past 20 years. Surgery is the primary strategy of therapy for patients with medullary TC (MTC) and differentiated TC (DTC). In DTC patients, radioactive iodine (RAI) is administered after thyroidectomy. Neck ultrasound, basal and thyroid-stimulating hormone-stimulated thyroglobulin are generally performed every three to six months for the first year, with subsequent intervals depending on initial risk assessment, for the detection of possible persistent/recurrent disease during the follow up. Distant metastases are present at the diagnosis in ∼5 % of DTC patients; up to 15 % of patients have recurrences during the follow up, with a survival reduction (70 %-50 %) at 10-year. During tumor progression, the iodide uptake capability of DTC cancer cells can be lost, making them refractory to RAI, with a negative impact on the prognosis. Significant advances have been done recently in our understanding of the molecular pathways implicated in the progression of TCs. Several drugs have been developed, which inhibit signaling kinases or oncogenic kinases (BRAFV600E, RET/PTC), such as those associated with Platelet-Derived Growth Factor Receptor and Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor Receptor. Tyrosine kinase receptors are involved in cancer cell proliferation, angiogenesis, and lymphangiogenesis. Several tyrosine kinase inhibitors (TKIs) are emerging as new treatments for DTC, MTC and anaplastic TC (ATC), and can induce a clinical response and stabilize the disease. Lenvatinib and sorafenib reached the approval for RAI-refractory DTC, whereas cabozantinib and vandetanib for MTC. These TKIs extend median progression-free survival, but do not increase the overall survival. Severe side effects and drug resistance can develop in TC patients treated with TKIs. Additional studies are needed to identify a potential effective targeted therapy for aggressive TCs, according to their molecular characterization.

Melanoma-derived soluble mediators modulate neutrophil biological properties and the release of neutrophil extracellular traps.

Polymorphonuclear neutrophils (PMNs) are the main effector cells in the inflammatory response. The significance of PMN infiltration in the tumor microenvironment remains unclear. Metastatic melanoma is the most lethal skin cancer with an increasing incidence over the last few decades. This study aimed to investigate the role of PMNs and their related mediators in human melanoma. Highly purified human PMNs from healthy donors were stimulated in vitro with conditioned media (CM) derived from the melanoma cell lines SKMEL28 and A375 (melanoma CM), and primary melanocytes as controls. PMN biological properties (chemotaxis, survival, activation, cell tracking, morphology and NET release) were evaluated. We found that the A375 cell line produced soluble factors that promoted PMN chemotaxis, survival, activation and modification of morphological changes and kinetic properties. Furthermore, in both melanoma cell lines CM induced chemotaxis, activation and release of neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs) from PMNs. In contrast, the primary melanocyte CM did not modify the biological behavior of PMNs. In addition, serum levels of myeloperoxidase, matrix metalloprotease-9, CXCL8/IL-8, granulocyte and monocyte colony-stimulating factor and NETs were significantly increased in patients with advanced melanoma compared to healthy controls. Melanoma cell lines produce soluble factors able to "educate" PMNs toward an activated functional state. Patients with metastatic melanoma display increased circulating levels of neutrophil-related mediators and NETs. Further investigations are needed to better understand the role of these "tumor-educated neutrophils" in modifying melanoma cell behavior.

Unleashing the power of formyl peptide receptor 2 in cardiovascular disease.

N-formyl peptide receptors (FPRs) are seven-transmembrane, G protein-coupled receptors with a wide distribution in immune and non-immune cells, recognizing N-formyl peptides from bacterial and mitochondrial origin and several endogenous signals. Three FPRs have been identified in humans: FPR1, FPR2, and FPR3. Most FPR ligands can activate a pro-inflammatory response, while a limited group of FPR agonists can elicit anti-inflammatory and homeostatic responses. Annexin A1 (AnxA1), a glucocorticoid-induced protein, its N-terminal peptide Ac2-26, and lipoxin A4 (LXA4), a lipoxygenase-derived eicosanoid mediator, exert significant immunomodulatory effects by interacting with FPR2 and/or FPR1. The ability of FPRs to recognize both ligands with pro-inflammatory or inflammation-resolving properties places them in a crucial position in the balance between activation against harmful events and maintaince of tissue integrity. A new field of investigation focused on the role of FPRs in the setting of heart injury. FPRs are expressed on cardiac macrophages, which are the predominant immune cells in the myocardium and play a key role in heart diseases. Several endogenous (AnxA1, LXA4) and synthetic compounds (compound 43, BMS-986235) reduced infarct size and promoted the resolution of inflammation via the activation of FPR2 on cardiac macrophages. Further studies should evaluate FPR2 role in other cardiovascular disorders.

Cardiac Mast Cells: Underappreciated Immune Cells in Cardiovascular Homeostasis and Disease.

Mast cells are multifarious immune cells with complex roles in tissue homeostasis and disease. They produce a plethora of mediators that play roles in inflammation, angiogenesis, lymphangiogenesis, and tissue remodeling. Recent insights into the heterogeneity of cardiac mast cell (CMC) subpopulations have renewed interest in their functional diversity in homeostasis and disease. They are located within the human heart in the myocardium, in atherosclerotic plaques, in the aortic valve, and in close proximity to nerves. Their plasticity enables different and even opposite functions in response to changing tissue contexts. These characteristics render CMCs intriguing, with a dichotomous role in protecting against, or accelerating, cardiovascular diseases. Future work should aim to identify CMC subsets, which could reveal novel therapeutic opportunities for cardiovascular disorders.

SARS-CoV-2 Spike Protein Activates Human Lung Macrophages.

COVID-19 is a viral disease caused by SARS-CoV-2. This disease is characterized primarily, but not exclusively, by respiratory tract inflammation. SARS-CoV-2 infection relies on the binding of spike protein to ACE2 on the host cells. The virus uses the protease TMPRSS2 as an entry activator. Human lung macrophages (HLMs) are the most abundant immune cells in the lung and fulfill a variety of specialized functions mediated by the production of cytokines and chemokines. The aim of this project was to investigate the effects of spike protein on HLM activation and the expression of ACE2 and TMPRSS2 in HLMs. Spike protein induced CXCL8, IL-6, TNF-α, and IL-1ß release from HLMs; promoted efficient phagocytosis; and induced dysfunction of intracellular Ca2+ concentration by increasing lysosomal Ca2+ content in HLMs. Microscopy experiments revealed that HLM tracking was affected by spike protein activation. Finally, HLMs constitutively expressed mRNAs for ACE2 and TMPRSS2. In conclusion, during SARS-CoV-2 infection, macrophages seem to play a key role in lung injury, resulting in immunological dysfunction and respiratory disease.

Epigenetics: An opportunity to shape innate and adaptive immune responses.

Epigenetics connects genetic and environmental factors: it includes DNA methylation, histone post-translational modifications and the regulation of chromatin accessibility by non-coding RNAs, all of which control constitutive or inducible gene transcription. This plays a key role in harnessing the transcriptional programs of both innate and adaptive immune cells due to its plasticity and environmental-driven nature, piloting myeloid and lymphoid cell fate decisions with no change in their genomic sequence. In particular, epigenetic marks at the site of lineage-specific transcription factors and maintenance of cell type-specific epigenetic modifications, referred to as 'epigenetic memory', dictate cell differentiation, cytokine production and functional capacity following repeated antigenic exposure in memory T cells. Moreover, metabolic and epigenetic reprogramming occurring during a primary innate immune response leads to enhanced responses to secondary challenges, a phenomenon known as 'trained immunity'. Here, we discuss how stable and dynamic epigenetic states control immune cell identity and plasticity in physiological and pathological conditions. Dissecting the regulatory circuits of cell fate determination and maintenance is of paramount importance for understanding the delicate balance between immune cell activation and tolerance, in healthy conditions and in autoimmune diseases.

Biologics and airway remodeling in severe asthma.

Asthma is a chronic inflammatory airway disease resulting in airflow obstruction, which in part can become irreversible to conventional therapies, defining the concept of airway remodeling. The introduction of biologics in severe asthma has led in some patients to the complete normalization of previously considered irreversible airflow obstruction. This highlights the need to distinguish a "fixed" airflow obstruction due to structural changes unresponsive to current therapies, from a "reversible" one as demonstrated by lung function normalization during biological therapies not previously obtained even with high-dose systemic glucocorticoids. The mechanisms by which exposure to environmental factors initiates the inflammatory responses that trigger airway remodeling are still incompletely understood. Alarmins represent epithelial-derived cytokines that initiate immunologic events leading to inflammatory airway remodeling. Biological therapies can improve airflow obstruction by addressing these airway inflammatory changes. In addition, biologics might prevent and possibly even revert "fixed" remodeling due to structural changes. Hence, it appears clinically important to separate the therapeutic effects (early and late) of biologics as a new paradigm to evaluate the effects of these drugs and future treatments on airway remodeling in severe asthma.

Anaplastic Thyroid Cancer Cells Induce the Release of Mitochondrial Extracellular DNA Traps by Viable Neutrophils.

Neutrophils are key effector cells that orchestrate inflammatory responses in the tumor microenvironment. Although neutrophil extracellular DNA traps (NETs) entrap and kill pathogens, they also contribute to chronic inflammation and cancer progression. Thyroid cancer (TC) is the most frequently occurring cancer of the endocrine system, accounting for 70% of deaths due to endocrine tumors. Although anaplastic TC (ATC) is rare among TCs, it is highly lethal. We demonstrated in a recent study that tumor-infiltrating neutrophil density correlated with TC size. Moreover, TC-derived soluble mediators modulate the human neutrophil phenotype. Our study aimed to investigate the involvement of NETs in human TC. Highly purified neutrophils from healthy donors were primed in vitro with a papillary TC or ATC cell line conditioned medium (CM) or with a normal thyroid CM as control. NET release was quantified using a High-Content Imaging System. Neutrophil viability was assessed by flow cytometry. Fluorescence microscopy, flow cytometry, and PCR were performed to determine the mitochondrial origin of ATC-induced NETs. ATC CM-primed neutrophils were cocultured with ATC cells to determine the effects exerted by NETs on cell proliferation. ATC CM induce NET release, whereas papillary TC or normal thyroid CM did not. ATC CM-induced NET production occurred in a reactive oxygen species-dependent and cell death-independent manner and was associated with mitochondrial reactive oxygen species production; the NETs contained mitochondrial DNA. ATC CM-primed neutrophils promoted ATC cell proliferation in a NET-dependent manner.

Altered chromatin landscape in circulating T follicular helper and regulatory cells following grass pollen subcutaneous and sublingual immunotherapy.

BACKGROUND: Allergen-specific immunotherapy is a disease-modifying treatment that induces long-term T-cell tolerance. OBJECTIVE: We sought to evaluate the role of circulating CXCR5+PD-1+ T follicular helper (cTFH) and T follicular regulatory (TFR) cells following grass pollen subcutaneous immunotherapy (SCIT) and sublingual immunotherapy (SLIT) and the accompanying changes in their chromatin landscape. METHODS: Phenotype and function of cTFH cells were initially evaluated in the grass pollen-allergic (GPA) group (n = 28) and nonatopic healthy controls (NAC, n = 13) by mathematical algorithms developed to manage high-dimensional data and cell culture, respectively. cTFH and TFR cells were further enumerated in NAC (n = 12), GPA (n = 14), SCIT- (n = 10), and SLIT- (n = 8) treated groups. Chromatin accessibility in cTFH and TFR cells was assessed by assay for transposase-accessible chromatin sequencing (ATAC-seq) to investigate epigenetic mechanisms underlying the differences between NAC, GPA, SCIT, and SLIT groups. RESULTS: cTFH cells were shown to be distinct from TH2- and TH2A-cell subsets, capable of secreting IL-4 and IL-21. Both cytokines synergistically promoted B-cell class switching to IgE and plasma cell differentiation. Grass pollen allergen induced cTFH-cell proliferation in the GPA group but not in the NAC group (P < .05). cTFH cells were higher in the GPA group compared with the NAC group and were lower in the SCIT and SLIT groups (P < .01). Time-dependent induction of IL-4, IL-21, and IL-6 was observed in nasal mucosa following intranasal allergen challenge in the GPA group but not in SCIT and SLIT groups. TFR and IL-10+ cTFH cells were induced in SCIT and SLIT groups (all, P < .01). ATAC-seq analyses revealed differentially accessible chromatin regions in all groups. CONCLUSIONS: For the first time, we showed dysregulation of cTFH cells in the GPA group compared to NAC, SCIT, and SLIT groups and induction of TFR and IL-10+ cTFH cells following SCIT and SLIT. Changes in the chromatin landscape were observed following allergen-specific immunotherapy in cTFH and TFR cells.

Human Lung Mast Cells: Therapeutic Implications in Asthma.

Mast cells are strategically located in different compartments of the lung in asthmatic patients. These cells are widely recognized as central effectors and immunomodulators in different asthma phenotypes. Mast cell mediators activate a wide spectrum of cells of the innate and adaptive immune system during airway inflammation. Moreover, these cells modulate the activities of several structural cells (i.e., fibroblasts, airway smooth muscle cells, bronchial epithelial and goblet cells, and endothelial cells) in the human lung. These findings indicate that lung mast cells and their mediators significantly contribute to the immune induction of airway remodeling in severe asthma. Therapies targeting mast cell mediators and/or their receptors, including monoclonal antibodies targeting IgE, IL-4/IL-13, IL-5/IL-5Rα, IL-4Rα, TSLP, and IL-33, have been found safe and effective in the treatment of different phenotypes of asthma. Moreover, agonists of inhibitory receptors expressed by human mast cells (Siglec-8, Siglec-6) are under investigation for asthma treatment. Increasing evidence suggests that different approaches to depleting mast cells show promising results in severe asthma treatment. Novel treatments targeting mast cells can presumably change the course of the disease and induce drug-free remission in bronchial asthma. Here, we provide an overview of current and promising treatments for asthma that directly or indirectly target lung mast cells.

Human mast cells and basophils-How are they similar how are they different?

Mast cells and basophils are key contributors to allergies and other inflammatory diseases since they are the most prominent source of histamine as well as numerous additional inflammatory mediators which drive inflammatory responses. However, a closer understanding of their precise roles in allergies and other pathological conditions has been marred by the considerable heterogeneity that these cells display, not only between mast cells and basophils themselves but also across different tissue locations and species. While both cell types share the ability to rapidly degranulate and release histamine following high-affinity IgE receptor cross-linking, they differ markedly in their ability to either react to other stimuli, generate inflammatory eicosanoids or release immunomodulating cytokines and chemokines. Furthermore, these cells display considerable pharmacological heterogeneity which has stifled attempts to develop more effective anti-allergic therapies. Mast cell- and basophil-specific transcriptional profiling, at rest and after activation by innate and adaptive stimuli, may help to unravel the degree to which these cells differ and facilitate a clearer understanding of their biological functions and how these could be targeted by new therapies.

Macrophage-polarizing stimuli differentially modulate the inflammatory profile induced by the secreted phospholipase A2 group IA in human lung macrophages.

In this study we investigated the effects of snake venom Group IA secreted phospholipase A2 (svGIA) on the release of inflammatory and angiogenic mediators from human lung macrophages (HLMs). HLMs were incubated with lipopolysaccharide (LPS) or svGIA with or without macrophage-polarizing stimuli (IL-4, IL-10, IFN-γ or the adenosine analogue NECA). M2-polarizing cytokines (IL-4 and IL-10) inhibited TNF-α, IL-6, IL-12, IL-1ß, CXCL8 and CCL1 release induced by both LPS and svGIA. IL-4 inhibited also the release of IL-10. IFN-γ reduced IL-10 and IL-12 and increased CCL1 release by both the LPS and svGIA-stimulated HLMs, conversely IFN-γ reduced IL-1ß only by svGIA-stimulated HLMs. In addition, IFNγ promoted TNF-α and IL-6 release from svGIA-stimulated HLMs to a greater extent than LPS. NECA inhibited TNF-α and IL-12 but promoted IL-10 release from LPS-stimulated HLMs according to the well-known effect of adenosine in down-regulating M1 activation. By contrast NECA reduced TNF-α, IL-10, CCL1 and IL-1ß release from svGIA-activated HLM. IL-10 and NECA increased both LPS- and svGIA-induced vascular endothelial growth factor A (VEGF-A) release. By contrast, IL-10 reduced angiopoietin-1 (ANGPT1) production from activated HLMs. IFN-γ and IL-4 reduced VEGF-A and ANGPT1 release from both LPS- and svGIA-activated HLMs. Moreover, IL-10 inhibited LPS-induced ANGPT2 production. In conclusion, we demonstrated a fine-tuning modulation of svGIA-activated HLMs differentially exerted by the classical macrophage-polarizing cytokines.

Cardiovascular Toxicity of Immune Checkpoint Inhibitors: Clinical Risk Factors.

PURPOSE OF REVIEW: Immune checkpoint inhibitors, such as monoclonal antibodies targeting CTLA-4, PD-1, and PD-L1, have improved the outcome of many malignancies, but serious immune-related cardiovascular adverse events have been observed. Patients' risk factors for these toxicities are currently being investigated. RECENT FINDINGS: Interfering with the CTLA-4 and PD-1 axes can bring to several immune-related adverse events, including cardiotoxic events such as autoimmune myocarditis, pericarditis, and vasculitis, suggesting that these molecules play an important role in preventing autoimmunity. Risk factors (such as pre-existing cardiovascular conditions, previous and concomitant cardiotoxic treatments, underlying autoimmune diseases, tumor-related factors, simultaneous immune-related toxic effects, and genetic factors) should be always recognized for the correct management of these toxicities.

The role of mobile health technologies in allergy care: An EAACI position paper.

Mobile health (mHealth) uses mobile communication devices such as smartphones and tablet computers to support and improve health-related services, data and information flow, patient self-management, surveillance, and disease management from the moment of first diagnosis to an optimized treatment. The European Academy of Allergy and Clinical Immunology created a task force to assess the state of the art and future potential of mHealth in allergology. The task force endorsed the "Be He@lthy, Be Mobile" WHO initiative and debated the quality, usability, efficiency, advantages, limitations, and risks of mobile solutions for allergic diseases. The results are summarized in this position paper, analyzing also the regulatory background with regard to the "General Data Protection Regulation" and Medical Directives of the European Community. The task force assessed the design, user engagement, content, potential of inducing behavioral change, credibility/accountability, and privacy policies of mHealth products. The perspectives of healthcare professionals and allergic patients are discussed, underlining the need of thorough investigation for an effective design of mHealth technologies as auxiliary tools to improve quality of care. Within the context of precision medicine, these could facilitate the change in perspective from clinician- to patient-centered care. The current and future potential of mHealth is then examined for specific areas of allergology, including allergic rhinitis, aerobiology, allergen immunotherapy, asthma, dermatological diseases, food allergies, anaphylaxis, insect venom, and drug allergy. The impact of mobile technologies and associated big data sets are outlined. Facts and recommendations for future mHealth initiatives within EAACI are listed.

Eosinophils in the Tumor Microenvironment.

Eosinophils are rare blood-circulating and tissue-infiltrating immune cells studied for decades in the context of allergic diseases and parasitic infections. Eosinophils can secrete a wide array of soluble mediators and effector molecules, with potential immunoregulatory activities in the tumor microenvironment (TME). These findings imply that these cells may play a role in cancer immunity. Despite these cells were known to infiltrate tumors since many years ago, their role in TME is gaining attention only recently. In this chapter, we will review the main biological functions of eosinophils that can be relevant within the TME. We will discuss how these cells may undergo phenotypic changes acquiring pro- or antitumoricidal properties according to the surrounding stimuli. Moreover, we will analyze canonical (i.e., degranulation) and unconventional mechanisms (i.e., DNA traps, exosome secretion) employed by eosinophils in inflammatory contexts, which can be relevant for tumor immune responses. Finally, we will review the available preclinical models that could be employed for the study of the role in vivo of eosinophils in cancer.