Continuous evaluation of denoising strategies in resting-state fMRI connectivity using fMRIPrep and Nilearn.

Reducing contributions from non-neuronal sources is a crucial step in functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) connectivity analyses. Many viable strategies for denoising fMRI are used in the literature, and practitioners rely on denoising benchmarks for guidance in the selection of an appropriate choice for their study. However, fMRI denoising software is an ever-evolving field, and the benchmarks can quickly become obsolete as the techniques or implementations change. In this work, we present a denoising benchmark featuring a range of denoising strategies, datasets and evaluation metrics for connectivity analyses, based on the popular fMRIprep software. The benchmark prototypes an implementation of a reproducible framework, where the provided Jupyter Book enables readers to reproduce or modify the figures on the Neurolibre reproducible preprint server (https://neurolibre.org/). We demonstrate how such a reproducible benchmark can be used for continuous evaluation of research software, by comparing two versions of the fMRIprep. Most of the benchmark results were consistent with prior literature. Scrubbing, a technique which excludes time points with excessive motion, combined with global signal regression, is generally effective at noise removal. Scrubbing was generally effective, but is incompatible with statistical analyses requiring the continuous sampling of brain signal, for which a simpler strategy, using motion parameters, average activity in select brain compartments, and global signal regression, is preferred. Importantly, we found that certain denoising strategies behave inconsistently across datasets and/or versions of fMRIPrep, or had a different behavior than in previously published benchmarks. This work will hopefully provide useful guidelines for the fMRIprep users community, and highlight the importance of continuous evaluation of research methods.

Voice Hearing in Borderline Personality Disorder Across Perceptual, Subjective, and Neural Dimensions.

BACKGROUND: Auditory verbal hallucinations (AVH) commonly occur in the context of borderline personality disorder (BPD) yet remain poorly understood. AVH are often perceived by patients with BPD as originating from inside the head and hence viewed clinically as "pseudohallucinations," but they nevertheless have a detrimental impact on well-being. METHODS: The current study characterized perceptual, subjective, and neural expressions of AVH by using an auditory detection task, experience sampling and questionnaires, and functional neuroimaging, respectively. RESULTS: Perceptually, reported AVH correlated with a bias for reporting the presence of a voice in white noise. Subjectively, questionnaire measures indicated that AVH were significantly distressing and persecutory. In addition, AVH intensity, but not perceived origin (i.e., inside vs outside the head), was associated with greater concurrent anxiety. Neurally, fMRI of BPD participants demonstrated that, relative to imagining or listening to voices, periods of reported AVH induced greater blood oxygenation level-dependent activity in anterior cingulate and bilateral temporal cortices (regional substrates for language processing). AVH symptom severity was associated with weaker functional connectivity between anterior cingulate and bilateral insular cortices. CONCLUSION: In summary, our results indicate that AVH in participants with BPD are (1) underpinned by aberrant perceptual-cognitive mechanisms for signal detection, (2) experienced subjectively as persecutory and distressing, and (3) associated with distinct patterns of neural activity that inform proximal mechanistic understanding. Our findings are like analogous observations in patients with schizophrenia and validate the clinical significance of the AVH experience in BPD, often dismissed as "pseudohallucinations." These highlight a need to reconsider this experience as a treatment priority.

Default mode network can support the level of detail in experience during active task states.

Regions of transmodal cortex, in particular the default mode network (DMN), have historically been argued to serve functions unrelated to task performance, in part because of associations with naturally occurring periods of off-task thought. In contrast, contemporary views of the DMN suggest it plays an integrative role in cognition that emerges from its location at the top of a cortical hierarchy and its relative isolation from systems directly involved in perception and action. The combination of these topographical features may allow the DMN to support abstract representations derived from lower levels in the hierarchy and so reflect the broader cognitive landscape. To investigate these contrasting views of DMN function, we sampled experience as participants performed tasks varying in their working-memory load while inside an fMRI scanner. We used self-report data to establish dimensions of thought that describe levels of detail, the relationship to a task, the modality of thought, and its emotional qualities. We used representational similarity analysis to examine correspondences between patterns of neural activity and each dimension of thought. Our results were inconsistent with a task-negative view of DMN function. Distinctions between on- and off-task thought were associated with patterns of consistent neural activity in regions adjacent to unimodal cortex, including motor and premotor cortex. Detail in ongoing thought was associated with patterns of activity within the DMN during periods of working-memory maintenance. These results demonstrate a contribution of the DMN to ongoing cognition extending beyond task-unrelated processing that can include detailed experiences occurring under active task conditions.

A role for the ventromedial prefrontal cortex in self-generated episodic social cognition.

The human mind is equally fluent in thoughts that involve self-generated mental content as it is with information in the immediate environment. Previous research has shown that neural systems linked to executive control (i.e. the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex) are recruited when perceptual and self-generated thoughts are balanced in line with the demands imposed by the external world. Contemporary theories (Smallwood and Schooler, 2015) assume that differentiable processes are important for self-generated mental content than for its regulation. The current study used functional magnetic resonance imaging in combination with multidimensional experience sampling to address this possibility. We used a task with minimal demands to maximise our power at identifying correlates of self-generated states. Principal component analysis showed consistent patterns of self-generated thought when participants performed the task in either the lab or in the scanner (ICC ranged from 0.68 to 0.86). In a whole brain analyses we found that neural activity in the ventromedial prefrontal cortex (vMPFC) increases when participants are engaged in experiences which emphasise episodic and socio-cognitive features. Our study suggests that neural activity in the vMPFC is linked to patterns of ongoing thought, particularly those with episodic or social features.

Finding the needle in a high-dimensional haystack: Canonical correlation analysis for neuroscientists.

The 21st century marks the emergence of "big data" with a rapid increase in the availability of datasets with multiple measurements. In neuroscience, brain-imaging datasets are more commonly accompanied by dozens or hundreds of phenotypic subject descriptors on the behavioral, neural, and genomic level. The complexity of such "big data" repositories offer new opportunities and pose new challenges for systems neuroscience. Canonical correlation analysis (CCA) is a prototypical family of methods that is useful in identifying the links between variable sets from different modalities. Importantly, CCA is well suited to describing relationships across multiple sets of data, such as in recently available big biomedical datasets. Our primer discusses the rationale, promises, and pitfalls of CCA.

The relationship between individual variation in macroscale functional gradients and distinct aspects of ongoing thought.

Contemporary accounts of ongoing thought recognise it as a heterogeneous and multidimensional construct, varying in both form and content. An emerging body of evidence demonstrates that distinct types of experience are associated with unique neurocognitive profiles, that can be described at the whole-brain level as interactions between multiple large-scale networks. The current study sought to explore the possibility that whole-brain functional connectivity patterns at rest may be meaningfully related to patterns of ongoing thought that occurred over this period. Participants underwent resting-state functional magnetic resonance imaging (rs-fMRI) followed by a questionnaire retrospectively assessing the content and form of their ongoing thoughts during the scan. A non-linear dimension reduction algorithm was applied to the rs-fMRI data to identify components explaining the greatest variance in whole-brain connectivity patterns. Using these data, we examined whether specific types of thought measured at the end of the scan were predictive of individual variation along the first three low-dimensional components of functional connectivity at rest. Multivariate analyses revealed that individuals for whom the connectivity of the sensorimotor system was maximally distinct from the visual system were most likely to report thoughts related to finding solutions to problems or goals and least likely to report thoughts related to the past. These results add to an emerging literature that suggests that unique patterns of experience are associated with distinct distributed neurocognitive profiles and highlight that unimodal systems may play an important role in this process.

The ebb and flow of attention: Between-subject variation in intrinsic connectivity and cognition associated with the dynamics of ongoing experience.

Cognition is dynamic, allowing us the flexibility to shift focus from different aspects of the environment, or between internally- and externally-oriented trains of thought. Although we understand how individuals switch attention across different tasks, the neurocognitive processes that underpin the dynamics of less constrained elements of cognition are less well understood. To explore this issue, we developed a paradigm in which participants intermittently responded to external events across two conditions that systematically vary in their need for updating working memory based on information in the external environment. This paradigm distinguishes the influences on cognition that emerge because of demands placed by the task (sustained) from changes that result from the time elapsed since the last task response (transient). We used experience sampling to identify dynamic changes in ongoing cognition in this paradigm, and related between subject variation in these measures to variations in the intrinsic organisation of large-scale brain networks. We found systems important for attention were involved in the regulation of off-task thought. Coupling between the ventral attention network and regions of primary motor cortex was stronger for individuals who were able to regulate off-task thought in line with the demands of the task. This pattern of coupling was linked to greater task-related thought when environmental demands were high and elevated off-task thought when demands were low. In contrast, the coupling of the dorsal attention network with a region of lateral visual cortex was stronger for individuals for whom off-task thoughts transiently increased with the time since responding to the external world . This pattern is consistent with a role for this system in the time-limited top-down biasing of visual processing to increase behavioural efficiency. Unlike the attention networks, coupling between regions of the default mode network and dorsal occipital cortex was weaker for individuals for whom the level of detail decreased with the passage of time when the external task did not require continuous monitoring of external information. These data provide novel evidence for how neural systems vary across subjects and may underpin individual variation in the dynamics of thought, linking attention systems to the maintenance of task-relevant information, and the default mode network to supporting experiences with vivid detail.

Modes of operation: A topographic neural gradient supporting stimulus dependent and independent cognition.

Human cognition is flexible - drawing on both sensory input, and representations from memory, to successfully navigate complex environments. Contemporary accounts suggest this flexibility is possible because neural function is organized into a hierarchy. Neural regions are organized along a macroscale gradient, anchored at one end by unimodal systems involved with perception and action, and at the other by transmodal systems, including the default mode network, supporting cognition less directly tied to immediate stimulus input. The current study tested whether this cortical hierarchy captures modes of behaviour that depend on immediate input, as well as those that depend on representations from memory. Participants made decisions regarding the location or identity of shapes using information in the environment (0-back) or from a prior trial (1-back). Using task based imaging we established that, regardless of the nature of the decision, medial and lateral visual cortex were recruited when decisions rely on immediate input, while transmodal regions were recruited when judgments depend on information from the prior trial. Using principal components analysis, we demonstrated that shifting decision-making from perception to memory altered the focus of neural activity from unimodal to transmodal regions (and vice versa). Notably, the more pronounced these shifts in neural activity from unimodal to transmodal regions when decisions relied on memory, the more efficiently individuals performed this task. These data illustrate how the macroscale organization of neural function into a hierarchy allows cognition to rely on input, or information from memory, in a flexible and efficient manner.

Patterns of on-task thought in older age are associated with changes in functional connectivity between temporal and prefrontal regions.

Humans spend a large proportion of their time engaged in thoughts unrelated to the task being performed, a tendency that declines with age. However, a clear neuro-cognitive account of what underlies this decrease is lacking. This study addresses the possibility that age-related changes in off-task thinking are correlated with changes in the intrinsic organisation of the brain. Laboratory measures of ongoing thought were recorded in young and older individuals, who also participated in a resting state fMRI experiment. Older individuals showed reduced connectivity between the left anterior temporal lobe with prefrontal aspects of the DMN. We found that off-task thinking did not increase when task demands were lower for older adults, which is a pattern repeatedly seen in younger individuals. Finally, we demonstrated that these neural and thought patterns were linked - for younger participants only, reductions in the strength of connectivity were related to a greater shift towards off-task thoughts when task demands decreased. Importantly, in the older individuals, lower connectivity between the same regions was linked to preserved performance on a creativity task. These data suggest that the age-related reduction of off-task thought may be related to reduced communication between temporal and prefrontal DMN regions in ageing.

Patterns of thought: Population variation in the associations between large-scale network organisation and self-reported experiences at rest.

Contemporary cognitive neuroscience recognises unconstrained processing varies across individuals, describing variation in meaningful attributes, such as intelligence. It may also have links to patterns of on-going experience. This study examined whether dimensions of population variation in different modes of unconstrained processing can be described by the associations between patterns of neural activity and self-reports of experience during the same period. We selected 258 individuals from a publicly available data set who had measures of resting-state functional magnetic resonance imaging, and self-reports of experience during the scan. We used machine learning to determine patterns of association between the neural and self-reported data, finding variation along four dimensions. 'Purposeful' experiences were associated with lower connectivity - in particular default mode and limbic networks were less correlated with attention and sensorimotor networks. 'Emotional' experiences were associated with higher connectivity, especially between limbic and ventral attention networks. Experiences focused on themes of 'personal importance' were associated with reduced functional connectivity within attention and control systems. Finally, visual experiences were associated with stronger connectivity between visual and other networks, in particular the limbic system. Some of these patterns had contrasting links with cognitive function as assessed in a separate laboratory session - purposeful thinking was linked to greater intelligence and better abstract reasoning, while a focus on personal importance had the opposite relationship. Together these findings are consistent with an emerging literature on unconstrained states and also underlines that these states are heterogeneous, with distinct modes of population variation reflecting the interplay of different large-scale networks.

Distant from input: Evidence of regions within the default mode network supporting perceptually-decoupled and conceptually-guided cognition.

The default mode network supports a variety of mental operations such as semantic processing, episodic memory retrieval, mental time travel and mind-wandering, yet the commonalities between these functions remains unclear. One possibility is that this system supports cognition that is independent of the immediate environment; alternatively or additionally, it might support higher-order conceptual representations that draw together multiple features. We tested these accounts using a novel paradigm that separately manipulated the availability of perceptual information to guide decision-making and the representational complexity of this information. Using task based imaging we established regions that respond when cognition combines both stimulus independence with multi-modal information. These included left and right angular gyri and the left middle temporal gyrus. Although these sites were within the default mode network, they showed a stronger response to demanding memory judgements than to an easier perceptual task, contrary to the view that they support automatic aspects of cognition. In a subsequent analysis, we showed that these regions were located at the extreme end of a macroscale gradient, which describes gradual transitions from sensorimotor to transmodal cortex. This shift in the focus of neural activity towards transmodal, default mode, regions might reflect a process of where the functional distance from specific sensory enables conceptually rich and detailed cognitive states to be generated in the absence of input.

Dimensions of Experience: Exploring the Heterogeneity of the Wandering Mind.

The tendency for the mind to wander to concerns other than the task at hand is a fundamental feature of human cognition, yet the consequences of variations in its experiential content for psychological functioning are not well understood. Here, we adopted multivariate pattern analysis to simultaneously decompose experience-sampling data and neural functional-connectivity data, which revealed dimensions that simultaneously describe individual variation in self-reported experience and default-mode-network connectivity. We identified dimensions corresponding to traits of positive-habitual thoughts and spontaneous task-unrelated thoughts. These dimensions were uniquely related to aspects of cognition, such as executive control and the ability to generate information in a creative fashion, and independently distinguished well-being measures. These data provide the most convincing evidence to date for an ontological view of the mind-wandering state as encompassing a broad range of different experiences and show that this heterogeneity underlies mind wandering's complex relationship to psychological functioning.

Varieties of semantic cognition revealed through simultaneous decomposition of intrinsic brain connectivity and behaviour.

Contemporary theories assume that semantic cognition emerges from a neural architecture in which different component processes are combined to produce aspects of conceptual thought and behaviour. In addition to the state-level, momentary variation in brain connectivity, individuals may also differ in their propensity to generate particular configurations of such components, and these trait-level differences may relate to individual differences in semantic cognition. We tested this view by exploring how variation in intrinsic brain functional connectivity between semantic nodes in fMRI was related to performance on a battery of semantic tasks in 154 healthy participants. Through simultaneous decomposition of brain functional connectivity and semantic task performance, we identified distinct components of semantic cognition at rest. In a subsequent validation step, these data-driven components demonstrated explanatory power for neural responses in an fMRI-based semantic localiser task and variation in self-generated thoughts during the resting-state scan. Our findings showed that good performance on harder semantic tasks was associated with relative segregation at rest between frontal brain regions implicated in controlled semantic retrieval and the default mode network. Poor performance on easier tasks was linked to greater coupling between the same frontal regions and the anterior temporal lobe; a pattern associated with deliberate, verbal thematic thoughts at rest. We also identified components that related to qualities of semantic cognition: relatively good performance on pictorial semantic tasks was associated with greater separation of angular gyrus from frontal control sites and greater integration with posterior cingulate and anterior temporal cortex. In contrast, good speech production was linked to the separation of angular gyrus, posterior cingulate and temporal lobe regions. Together these data show that quantitative and qualitative variation in semantic cognition across individuals emerges from variations in the interaction of nodes within distinct functional brain networks.

Continuous Evaluation of Denoising Strategies in Resting-State fMRI Connectivity Using fMRIPrep and Nilearn.

Reducing contributions from non-neuronal sources is a crucial step in functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) connectivity analyses. Many viable strategies for denoising fMRI are used in the literature, and practitioners rely on denoising benchmarks for guidance in the selection of an appropriate choice for their study. However, fMRI denoising software is an ever-evolving field, and the benchmarks can quickly become obsolete as the techniques or implementations change. In this work, we present a denoising benchmark featuring a range of denoising strategies, datasets and evaluation metrics for connectivity analyses, based on the popular fMRIprep software. The benchmark is implemented in a fully reproducible framework, where the provided research objects enable readers to reproduce or modify core computations, as well as the figures of the article using the Jupyter Book project and the Neurolibre reproducible preprint server (https://neurolibre.org/). We demonstrate how such a reproducible benchmark can be used for continuous evaluation of research software, by comparing two versions of the fMRIprep software package. The majority of benchmark results were consistent with prior literature. Scrubbing, a technique which excludes time points with excessive motion, combined with global signal regression, is generally effective at noise removal. Scrubbing however disrupts the continuous sampling of brain images and is incompatible with some statistical analyses, e.g. auto-regressive modeling. In this case, a simple strategy using motion parameters, average activity in select brain compartments, and global signal regression should be preferred. Importantly, we found that certain denoising strategies behave inconsistently across datasets and/or versions of fMRIPrep, or had a different behavior than in previously published benchmarks. This work will hopefully provide useful guidelines for the fMRIprep users community, and highlight the importance of continuous evaluation of research methods. Our reproducible benchmark infrastructure will facilitate such continuous evaluation in the future, and may also be applied broadly to different tools or even research fields.

Experience sampling reveals the role that covert goal states play in task-relevant behavior.

Cognitive neuroscience has gained insight into covert states using experience sampling. Traditionally, this approach has focused on off-task states. However, task-relevant states are also maintained via covert processes. Our study examined whether experience sampling can also provide insights into covert goal-relevant states that support task performance. To address this question, we developed a neural state space, using dimensions of brain function variation, that allows neural correlates of overt and covert states to be examined in a common analytic space. We use this to describe brain activity during task performance, its relation to covert states identified via experience sampling, and links between individual variation in overt and covert states and task performance. Our study established deliberate task focus was linked to faster target detection, and brain states underlying this experience-and target detection-were associated with activity patterns emphasizing the fronto-parietal network. In contrast, brain states underlying off-task experiences-and vigilance periods-were linked to activity patterns emphasizing the default mode network. Our study shows experience sampling can not only describe covert states that are unrelated to the task at hand, but can also be used to highlight the role fronto-parietal regions play in the maintenance of covert task-relevant states.

The Cardiac Timing Toolbox (CaTT): Testing for physiologically plausible effects of cardiac timing on behaviour.

There is a long history of, and renewed interest in, cardiac timing effects on behaviour and cognition. Cardiac timing effects may be identified by expressing events as a function of their location in the cardiac cycle, and applying circular (i.e. directional) statistics to test cardiac time-behaviour associations. Typically this approach 'stretches' all points in the cardiac cycle equally, but this is not necessarily physiologically valid. Moreover, many tests impose distributional assumptions that are not met by such data. We present a set of statistical techniques robust to this, instantiated within our new Cardiac Timing Toolbox (CaTT) for MATLAB: A physiologically-motivated method of wrapping behaviour to the cardiac cycle; and a set of non-parametric statistical tests that control for common confounds and distributional characteristics of these data. Using a reanalysis of previously published data, we guide readers through analyses using CaTT, aiding researchers in identifying physiologically plausible associations between heart-timing and cognition.

Higher Sensory Sensitivity is Linked to Greater Expansion Amongst Functional Connectivity Gradients.

Insofar as the autistic-like phenotype presents in the general population, it consists of partially dissociable traits, such as social and sensory issues. Here, we investigate individual differences in cortical organisation related to autistic-like traits. Connectome gradient decomposition based on resting state fMRI data reliably reveals a principal gradient spanning from unimodal to transmodal regions, reflecting the transition from perception to abstract cognition. In our non-clinical sample, this gradient's expansion, indicating less integration between visual and default mode networks, correlates with subjective sensory sensitivity (measured using the Glasgow Sensory Questionnaire, GSQ), but not other autistic-like traits (measured using the Autism Spectrum Quotient, AQ). This novel brain-based correlate of the GSQ demonstrates sensory issues can be disentangled from the wider autistic-like phenotype.

Comparing the bond strength of fiber post cementation in the root canal using pre- and co-curing procedures with the same self-etching bonding system.

Background/purpose: Self-etching bonding systems are widely used in fiber post cementation. However, no clear guidelines are established for choosing pre- or co-curing procedures. We investigated the bond strength of fiber post cementation using pre-/co-curing methods in self-etching bonding systems and compared them with those of a self-adhesive system. Materials and methods: Post spaces were prepared in 30 single-rooted premolars/canines, and the fiber posts were cemented in three ways (10 specimens per group): using a self-etching bonding system with either a pre-curing or simultaneous co-curing procedure (RelyX™ Ultimate; groups SE-pre and SE-co, respectively) and using a self-adhesive system (RelyX™ Unicem 2, group SA). Each specimen was embedded and sliced perpendicularly to the long axis into three 2.5-mm-thick sections. Microphotographs of the coronal and apical surfaces of each section were acquired, and push-out tests (1 mm/min) were performed. One-way analysis of variance was conducted on the data, followed by Tukey's honestly significant difference post hoc test. Results: The bond strength in the whole root was not significantly different among the three groups. When independently evaluating each portion, group SE-co exhibited significantly lower coronal bond strength. The bond strength varied among root regions only in group SE-pre; the apical region had a significantly lower value. Conclusion: No cementation method is superior in all portions. Regarding pre-curing methods, clinicians must caution the fit between the post and post space, which may be affected by the pre-polymerized bond layer. The co-curing method used in a larger coronal cement space contributes to the poor bond strength.

The neural correlates of ongoing conscious thought.

A core goal in cognitive neuroscience is identifying the physical substrates of the patterns of thought that occupy our daily lives. Contemporary views suggest that the landscape of ongoing experience is heterogeneous and can be influenced by features of both the person and the context. This perspective piece considers recent work that explicitly accounts for both the heterogeneity of the experience and context dependence of patterns of ongoing thought. These studies reveal that systems linked to attention and control are important for organizing experience in response to changing environmental demands. These studies also establish a role of the default mode network beyond task-negative or purely episodic content, for example, implicating it in the level of vivid detail in experience in both task contexts and in spontaneous self-generated experiential states. Together, this work demonstrates that the landscape of ongoing thought is reflected in the activity of multiple neural systems, and it is important to distinguish between processes contributing to how the experience unfolds from those linked to how these experiences are regulated.

Brainhack: Developing a culture of open, inclusive, community-driven neuroscience.

Brainhack is an innovative meeting format that promotes scientific collaboration and education in an open, inclusive environment. This NeuroView describes the myriad benefits for participants and the research community and how Brainhacks complement conventional formats to augment scientific progress.