DIGESTIVE AND FEEDING BEHAVIOR DIFFERENCES BETWEEN LAPPET-FACED VULTURES (TORGOS TRACHELIOTOS) AND GRIFFON VULTURES (GYPS FULVUS) EX SITU.

Appropriate diets for ex situ wildlife are essential for animal health and welfare and yet ex situ facilities are often constrained by feed ingredient availability when attempting to replicate natural diets. In obligate carnivores such as vultures, digestive strategies are likely to have evolved alongside feeding behaviors, which may differ between even sympatric species. To begin to understand the digestive strategies of two Old World vulture species (lappet-faced vulture Torgos tracheliotos, n = 3, and griffon vulture Gyps fulvus, n = 4) of similar body size but divergent feeding habits, their feeding and digestion strategies on a diet of whole rats were compared. The food intake, color of excreta, excreta consistency, and carbon and nitrogen excretion were measured. Mean retention time of the digesta was analyzed using titanium dioxide as an inert marker in a diet of chicken carcass. Lappet-faced vultures consumed significantly greater quantities of food than griffon vultures and were less selective. Lappet-faced vultures primarily produced brown excreta while griffon vultures primarily produced green excreta, with much higher carbon and nitrogen concentrations. The consistency of excreta and the mean retention time did not differ between the species but may have been too variable to detect differences. A strong positive correlation was found between food intake per metabolic weight and the proportion of brown excreta, and both were negatively correlated with green excreta, as well as excreta concentrations of nitrogen and carbon. These findings align with their reported feeding ecology, with lappet-faced vultures showing adaptations to less-digestible carcass material compared with griffon vultures. Despite their similar size and overlapping natural habitat, these results suggest a need for differentiated feed provisioning for these species when under human care.

Feed intake and dietary composition of iron (Fe), copper (Cu), vitamin E, and tannic acid of five captive black rhinoceros (Diceros bicornis) in a UK collection.

The black rhinoceros (Diceros bicornis) is a critically endangered species facing multiple anthropogenic pressures in its natural home range across Africa. Black rhinoceros are difficult to maintain ex situ and subject to diseases that are linked with captive dietary factors. Hemochromatosis is of particular concern, as it is a common finding at necropsy of captive adults, and has been linked to excessive dietary iron intake. This intake study investigates the select nutrient composition of the diets offered to and consumed by five captive black rhinoceros in a UK zoo to evaluate, ensure adequacy, and/or make adjustments if necessary. Alfalfa hay, pellets and six browse species offered were analyzed for iron (Fe), copper (Cu), vitamin E, and tannic acid content. Intakes were quantified and evaluated against levels found in wild diets and the currently available feeding guidelines for black rhinoceros. Diets eaten by five individual rhinoceros (1.4%-2.3% of bodyweight dry matter [DM] intake), comprising 68%-82% hay, 6%-13% pellets, and 13%-27% browse, contained 76-98 mg/kg Fe (on a DM basis), fell within the ranges of plants eaten by free-ranging rhinoceros (45-140 mg/kg DM), as well as values recommended for captive-fed browsing rhinoceros (50-100 mg/kg DM). Consumed diets were found to be marginal to adequate in Cu (9-11 mg/kg DM) compared with the recommended 10 mg/kg DM; dietary vitamin E ranged from 54 to 79 IU/kg DM, and tannic acid measured 13-14 g/kg DM. Commercial pellets were the primary contributor of dietary Fe, Cu, and vitamin E, containing up to 10 times more of each of those nutrients than the forages. Native browses were important sources of lower Fe ingredients, as well as appropriate levels of dietary Cu and vitamin E (dependent on species). Interestingly, pellets (23 g/kg) and alfalfa hay (14 g/kg) contained higher concentrations of tannic acid compared with any of the browses fed (4-13 g/kg). All nutritional parameters evaluated were close to recommended dietary levels, diets resembled values consumed in the wild, and the animals remained clinically healthy throughout the study. Overall, diets were considered nutritionally adequate for captive feeding of black rhinoceros; evaluating the nutrient composition of all ingredients, including browse plants in diets, provides important information for achieving optimal nutrient balance.

Chemical structures of oligosaccharides in milks of the American black bear (Ursus americanus americanus) and cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus).

The milk oligosaccharides were studied for two species of the Carnivora: the American black bear (Ursus americanus, family Ursidae, Caniformia), and the cheetah, (Acinonyx jubatus, family Felidae, Feliformia). Lactose was the most dominant saccharide in cheetah milk, while this was a minor saccharide and milk oligosaccharides predominated over lactose in American black bear milk. The structures of 8 neutral saccharides from American black bear milk were found to be Gal(ß1-4)Glc (lactose), Fuc(α1-2)Gal(ß1-4)Glc (2'-fucosyllactose), Gal(α1-3)Gal(ß1-4)Glc (isoglobotriose), Gal(α1-3)[Fuc(α1-2)]Gal(ß1-4)Glc (B-tetrasaccharide), Gal(α1-3)[Fuc(α1-2)]Gal(ß1-4)[Fuc(α1-3)]Glc (B-pentasaccharide), Fuc(α1-2)Gal(ß1-4)[Fuc(α1-3)]GlcNAc(ß1-3)Gal(ß1-4)Glc (difucosyl lacto-N-neotetraose), Gal(α1-3)Gal(ß1-4)[Fuc(α1-3)]GlcNAc(ß1-3)Gal(ß1-4)Glc (monogalactosyl monofucosyl lacto-N-neotetraose) and Gal(α1-3)Gal(ß1-4)GlcNAc(ß1-3)Gal(ß1-4)Glc (Galili pentasaccharide). Structures of 5 acidic saccharides were also identified in black bear milk: Neu5Ac(α2-3)Gal(ß1-4)Glc (3'-sialyllactose), Neu5Ac(α2-6)Gal(ß1-4)GlcNAc(ß1-3)[Fuc(α1-2)Gal(ß1-4)GlcNAc(ß1-6)]Gal(ß1-4)Glc (monosialyl monofucosyl lacto-N-neohexaose), Neu5Ac(α2-6)Gal(ß1-4)GlcNAc(ß1-3)[Gal(α1-3)Gal(ß1-4)GlcNAc(ß1-6)]Gal(ß1-4)Glc (monosialyl monogalactosyl lacto-N-neohexaose), Neu5Ac(α2-6)Gal(ß1-4)GlcNAc(ß1-3){Gal(α1-3)Gal(ß1-4)[Fuc(α1-3)]GlcNAc(ß1-6)}Gal(ß1-4)Glc (monosialyl monogalactosyl monofucosyl lacto-N-neohexaose), and Neu5Ac(α2-6)Gal(ß1-4)GlcNAc(ß1-3){Gal(α1-3)[Fuc(α1-2)]Gal(ß1-4)[Fuc(α1-3)]GlcNAc(ß1-6)}Gal(ß1-4)Glc (monosialyl monogalactosyl difucosyl lacto-N-neohexaose). A notable feature of some of these milk oligosaccharides is the presence of B-antigen (Gal(α1-3)[Fuc(α1-2)]Gal), α-Gal epitope (Gal(α1-3)Gal(ß1-4)Glc(NAc)) and Lewis x (Gal(ß1-4)[Fuc(α1-3)]GlcNAc) structures within oligosaccharides. By comparison to American black bear milk, cheetah milk had a much smaller array of oligosaccharides. Two cheetah milks contained Gal(α1-3)Gal(ß1-4)Glc (isoglobotriose), while another cheetah milk did not, but contained Gal(ß1-6)Gal(ß1-4)Glc (6'-galactosyllactose) and Gal(ß1-3)Gal(ß1-4)Glc (3'-galactosyllactose). Two cheetah milks contained Gal(ß1-4)GlcNAc(ß1-3)[Gal(ß1-4)GlcNAc(ß1-6)]Gal(ß1-4)Glc (lacto-N-neohexaose), and one cheetah milk contained Gal(ß1-4)Glc-3'-O-sulfate. Neu5Ac(α2-8)Neu5Ac(α2-3)Gal(ß1-4)Glc (disialyllactose) was the only sialyl oligosaccharide identified in cheetah milk. The heterogeneity of milk oligosaccharides was found between both species with respect of the presence/absence of B-antigen and Lewis x. The variety of milk oligosaccharides was much greater in the American black bear than in the cheetah. The ratio of milk oligosaccharides-to-lactose was lower in cheetah (1:1-1:2) than American black bear (21:1) which is likely a reflection of the requirement for a dietary supply of N-acetyl neuraminic acid (sialic acid), in altricial ursids compared to more precocial felids, given the role of these oligosaccharides in the synthesis of brain gangliosides and the polysialic chains on neural cell adhesion.

Serum protein capillary electrophoresis and measurement of acute phase proteins in a captive cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus) population.

Renal and gastrointestinal pathologies are widespread in the captive cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus) population but are often diagnosed at a late stage, because diagnostic tools are limited to the evaluation of clinical signs or general blood examination. Presently, no data are available on serum proteins and acute-phase proteins in cheetahs during health or disease, although they might be important to improve health monitoring. This study aimed to quantify serum proteins by capillary electrophoresis in 80 serum samples from captive cheetahs, categorized according to health status and disease type. Moreover, serum amyloid A concentrations were measured via a turbidimetric immunoassay validated in domestic cats, whereas haptoglobin and C-reactive protein were determined by non-species-specific functional tests. Cheetahs classified as healthy had serum protein and acute phase protein concentrations within reference ranges for healthy domestic cats. In contrast, unhealthy cheetahs had higher (P < 0.001) serum amyloid A, alpha2-globulin, and haptoglobin concentrations compared with the healthy subgroup. Moreover, serum amyloid A (P = 0.020), alpha2-globulin (P < 0.001) and haptoglobin (P = 0.001) concentrations in cheetahs suffering from chronic kidney disease were significantly greater compared to the reportedly healthy cheetahs. Our study indicates that serum proteins in the cheetah can be analyzed by routine capillary electrophoresis, whereas acute-phase proteins can be measured using available immunoassays or non-species-specific techniques, which are also likely to be applicable in other exotic felids. Moreover, results suggest that serum amyloid A and haptoglobin are important acute-phase proteins in the diseased cheetah and highlight the need to evaluate their role as early-onset markers for disease.

The global contribution of vultures towards ecosystem services and sustainability: An experts' perspective.

The ecosystem services framework is essential for biodiversity conservation, emphasizing the role of nature in achieving sustainable development goals (SDGs). This study offers a global view on vulture-associated ecosystem services and their SDG contributions, based on insights from 206 experts. The findings reveal global consensus on the importance of vultures in regulation and maintenance services, such as waste recycling and disease control. Cultural services attributed to vultures are moderate and vary regionally. Provisioning services are consistently rated low across all regions. Experts' views on vultures' key ecosystem roles are often biased toward well-known services and may not align with all scientific evidence. The study emphasizes vultures' role in achieving SDGs, particularly impacting life on land and health, and calls for reevaluating their contribution to sustainable practices. It stresses the need to customize conservation to regional values and perceptions, recognizing vultures' critical role in ecological balance, public health, and sustainable development.

Dietary isoflavone absorption, excretion, and metabolism in captive cheetahs (Acinonyx jubatus).

Dietary isoflavones, capable of influencing reproductive parameters in domestic cats (Felis catus), have been detected in commercial diets fed to captive cheetahs (Acinonyx jubatus). However, the absorptive and metabolic capacity of cheetahs towards isoflavones has not yet been studied. Experiments were designed to describe the plasma concentration-time curve, metabolite profile, and urinary and fecal excretion of genistein and daidzein in cheetahs following consumption of isoflavones. Four adult cheetahs were administered a single oral bolus of genistein and daidzein, and five juvenile cheetahs consuming a milk replacer formula found to contain isoflavones were also included. Urine was collected from all animals, and blood and feces were also collected from adult cheetahs following isoflavone exposure. Samples were analyzed for isoflavone metabolite concentration by liquid chromatography-electrospray ionization-multiple reaction ion monitoring mass spectrometry and high-performance liquid chromatography. Sulfate conjugates were the primary metabolites detected of both genistein and daidzein (60-80% of total isoflavones present) in the plasma and urine of cheetahs. A smaller proportion of daidzein was detected as conjugates in the urine of juvenile cheetahs, compared to adult cheetahs. Other metabolites included unconjugated genistein and daidzein, O-desmethylangolensin, and dihydrodaidzein, but not equol. Only 33% of the ingested genistein dose, and 9% of daidzein, was detected in plasma from adult cheetahs. However, of the ingested dose, 67% of genistein and 45% of daidzein were detected in the feces of adults. This study revealed that cheetahs appear efficient in their conjugation of absorbed dietary isoflavones and only a small fraction of ingested dose is absorbed. However, the capacity of the cheetah to conjugate genistein and daidzein with sulfate moieties appears lower than reported in the domestic cat. This may confer greater opportunity for biologic activity of isoflavones in the cheetah than would be predicted from findings in the domestic cat. However, further investigation is required.

Captivity-induced metabolic programming in an endangered felid: implications for species conservation.

Reintroduction of captive-bred individuals into the wild is an important conservation activity. However, environmental conditions can influence developmental programming, potentially causing metabolic disorders in adults. These effects are investigated here for the first time in an endangered species. Using body weight and feed intake data for Iberian lynx (Lynx pardinus) (n = 22), we compared the growth of captive versus wild born and/or reared individuals. Captive-born individuals gained weight as a function of calorie intake, unlike wild-born individuals. When compared with females reared in the wild, captive-reared females achieved a larger body size, without evidence of obesity. Captivity-associated changes to metabolic programming may compromise survival in the wild if an increased body size incurs a greater energy requirement. Large body size may also confer a competitive advantage over smaller, wild-born individuals, disrupting the social organisation of existing wild populations, and inferring long-term implications for the phenotypic composition of wild populations.

Integrating Gut Bacterial Diversity and Captive Husbandry to Optimize Vulture Conservation.

Endangered species recovery plans often include captive breeding and reintroduction, but success remains rare. Critical for effective recovery is an assessment of captivity-induced changes in adaptive traits of reintroduction candidates. The gut microbiota is one such trait and is particularly important for scavengers exposed to carcass microbiomes. We investigated husbandry-associated differences in the gut microbiota of two Old World vulture species using 16S RNA gene amplicon sequencing. Increased abundance of Actinobacteria occurred when vultures were fed quail but not rat or chicken. Conversely, diet preparation (sanitization) had no effect, although bacterial diversity differed significantly between vulture species, likely reflective of evolved feeding ecologies. Whilst the relative lack of influence of a sanitized diet is encouraging, changes in bacterial abundance associated with the type of prey occurred, representing a dietary influence on host-microbiome condition warranting consideration in ex situ species recovery plans. Incorporation of microbiome research in endangered species management, therefore, provides an opportunity to refine conservation practice.

Suspected adverse reactions to oral administration of a praziquantel-pyrantel combination in captive cheetahs (Acinonyx jubatus).

OBJECTIVE To characterize adverse reactions to oral administration of a combination of praziquantel and pyrantel embonate or pyrantel pamoate, with or without oxantel embonate, in captive cheetahs (Acinonyx jubatus). DESIGN Retrospective case series and case-control study. ANIMALS 16 captive cheetahs with signs of adverse reaction to oral administration of praziquantel and pyrantel, with or without oxantel embonate (affected group), and 27 cheetahs without such reactions (unaffected group), all from 3 independent facilities. PROCEDURES Medical records and postmortem findings for affected cheetahs were reviewed and compared with those of unaffected animals. Anthelmintic doses administered, age, and sex of cheetahs were compared between groups. RESULTS 3 reactions in affected cheetahs were fatal, whereas the remainder ranged from mild to severe. Postmortem examination failed to reveal any disease processes or conditions to explain the deaths. No differences in anthelmintic dose were identified between affected and unaffected cheetahs for all facilities combined, and no correlation existed between dose and reaction severity. No association with sex was detected, but affected cheetahs were significantly younger than unaffected cheetahs. This difference was not significant after controlling for facility. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE Cheetahs were concluded to have had an adverse reaction to the praziquantel-pyrantel combination because of temporal proximity of onset of clinical signs to dose administration, similarity of signs to those reported for toxicosis in other species for these drugs, and a lack of other disease process or environmental explanatory factors. A highly cautious approach to the use of this drug combination is recommended for cheetahs.

Dietary factors associated with faecal consistency and other indicators of gastrointestinal health in the captive cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus).

Gastrointestinal diseases pose significant risks to captive cheetah survival and welfare. Multiple factors are thought to be associated with these diseases, but to date a comprehensive epidemiological survey of disease risk factors has not been conducted. A survey of diet and health parameters was completed for 184 captive cheetahs in 86 international facilities. Comparisons were made among dietary factors with respect to disease status and observed faecal consistency, incidence of vomiting and diarrhoea in the past 4 weeks. Extremely dry faeces were most common in cheetahs fed carcasses, but was still of low incidence (15%). Contrastingly, cheetahs fed commercially prepared diets had the highest prevalence of liquid faeces "always" or "often" (9%). Cheetahs fed raw meat diets had the highest prevalence of soft faeces with no shape (22%), as well as of firm and dry faeces (40%). No broad category of diet exerted any influence on the health parameters investigated. However, feeding of ribs at least once per week reduced the odds of diarrhoea (P = 0.020) and feeding of long bones (limbs) at least once per week was associated with a lower odds of vomiting (P = 0.008). Cheetahs fed muscle meat at least once per week had reduced odds of suffering from chronic gastritis (P = 0.005) or non-specific gastrointestinal disease (P < 0.001). The only factor identified as increasing the odds of chronic gastritis was feeding of horse "often" or "always" (P = 0.023). The findings of the current study build on existing empirical research to support a recommendation towards a greater inclusion of skeletal components. Current husbandry guidelines advocating the use of supplemented raw meat diets are likewise supported, but the use of horse meat, as well as commercially prepared diets for captive cheetahs, warrants caution until further research is conducted.