Exploring the interplay of dopaminergic genotype and parental behavior in relation to executive function in early childhood.

Child genotype is an important biologically based individual difference conferring differential sensitivity to the effect of parental behavior. This study explored dopaminergic polygenic composite × parental behavior interactions in relation to young children's executive function. Participants were 135 36-month-old children and their mothers drawn from a prospective cohort followed longitudinally from pregnancy. A polygenic composite was created based on the number of COMT, DAT1, DRD2, and DRD4 alleles associated with increased reward sensitivity children carried. Maternal negative reactivity and responsiveness were coded during a series of structured mother-child interactions. Executive function was operationalized as self-control and working memory/inhibitory control. Path analysis supported a polygenic composite by negative reactivity interaction for self-control. The nature of the interaction was one of diathesis-stress, such that higher negative reactivity was associated with poorer self-control for children with higher polygenic composite scores. This result suggests that children with a higher number of alleles may be more vulnerable to the negative effect of negative reactivity. Negative reactivity may increase the risk for developing behavior problems in this population via an association with poorer self-control. Due to the small sample size, these initial findings should be treated with caution until they are replicated in a larger independent sample.

Differential associations of maternal behavior to preschool boys' and girls' executive function.

Boys are more sensitive to environmental factors like parental behavior, an important predictor of executive function. This study examined whether the interaction between child sex and maternal behavior was associated with children's executive function in a manner consistent with the vulnerability or differential susceptibility model. Participants were 146 36-month-old children and their mothers. Maternal responsiveness and negative reactivity were coded during structured mother-child interactions. Executive function was operationalized as latent self-control and working memory/inhibitory control (WMIC). Structural equation modelling supported a sex by responsiveness interaction for self-control but not WMIC. Consistent with a vulnerability model, less responsiveness was associated with poorer self-control for boys relative to girls. Boys' self-control may be more vulnerable to the negative effect of unresponsive maternal behavior helping explain boys increased risk for externalizing behavior problems.

Integrating Three Characteristics of Executive Function in Non-Demented Aging: Trajectories, Classification, and Biomarker Predictors.

OBJECTIVE: With longitudinal executive function (EF) data from the Victoria Longitudinal Study, we investigated three research goals pertaining to key characteristics of EF in non-demented aging: (a) examining variability in EF longitudinal trajectories, (b) establishing trajectory classes, and (c) identifying biomarker predictors discriminating these classes. METHOD: We used a trajectory analyses sample (n = 781; M age = 71.42) for the first and second goals and a prediction analyses sample (n = 570; M age = 70.10) for the third goal. Eight neuropsychological EF measures were used as indicators of three EF dimensions: inhibition, updating, and shifting. Data-driven classification analyses were applied to the full trajectory distribution. Machine learning prediction analyses tested 15 predictors from genetic, functional, lifestyle, mobility, and demographic risk domains. RESULTS: First, we observed: (a) significant variability in EF trajectories over a 40-year band of aging and (b) significantly variable patterns of EF decline. Second, a four-class EF trajectory model was observed, characterized with classes differentiated by an algorithm of level and slope information. Third, the highest group class was discriminated from lowest by several prediction factors: more education, more novel cognitive activity, lower pulse pressure, younger age, faster gait, lower body mass index, and better balance. CONCLUSION: First, with longitudinal variability in EF aging, the data-driven approach showed that long-term trajectories can be differentiated into separable classes. Second, prediction analyses discriminated class membership by a combination of multiple biomarkers from demographic, lifestyle, functional, and mobility domains of risk for brain and cognitive aging decline.

Socioeconomic status and executive function in early childhood: Exploring proximal mechanisms.

Although there is substantial evidence that socioeconomic status (SES) predicts children's executive function (EF), the mechanisms underlying this association are poorly understood. This study tested the utility of two theories proposed to link SES to children's EF: the family stress model and the family investment model. Data came from the Midwestern Infant Development Study (N = 151). To measure SES, parental education and income were assessed during pregnancy, and income was also assessed when children were 6 and 36 months old. Children's EF, operationalized as working memory/inhibitory control (WMIC) and self-control, was assessed at 36 months of age, along with potential mediators including maternal psychological distress, harsh parenting, and cognitive stimulation. Using structural equation modeling, we tested simultaneous pathways from SES to EF: (a) via maternal psychological distress to harsh parenting (family stress model) and (b) via cognitive stimulation (family investment model). Of the SES measures, lower education predicted poorer WMIC directly and indirectly via greater maternal psychological distress. Lower education also predicted poorer self-control via greater maternal psychological distress. This effect was partially suppressed by an indirect path from lower education to better self-control via greater psychological distress and increased harsh parenting. Cognitive stimulation did not act as a mediator. Income was not directly or indirectly associated with EF. These findings provide partial support for the family stress model and suggest that family functioning is an important proximal mechanism for children's EF development. This study also highlights the importance of considering SES as a multidimensional construct.

Does early maternal responsiveness buffer prenatal tobacco exposure effects on young children's behavioral disinhibition?

Children with prenatal tobacco exposure (PTE) exhibit early self-regulatory impairments, reflecting a life-course persistent propensity toward behavioral disinhibition. Previously, we demonstrated the protective role of parental responsiveness for reducing the risk of exposure-related disruptive behavior in adolescence. Here, we expanded this line of inquiry, examining whether responsiveness moderates the relation of PTE to a broader set of behavioral disinhibition features in early childhood and testing alternative diathesis-stress versus differential susceptibility explanatory models. PTE was assessed prospectively using interviews and bioassays in the Midwestern Infant Development Study (MIDS). Mother-child dyads (N = 276) were re-assessed at approximately 5 years of age in a preschool follow-up. We quantified maternal responsiveness and child behavioral disinhibition using a combination of directly observed activities in the lab and developmentally sensitive questionnaires. Results supported a diathesis-stress pattern. Children with PTE and less responsive mothers showed increased disruptive behavior and lower effortful control compared with children without PTE. In contrast, exposed children with more responsive mothers had self-regulatory profiles similar to their non-exposed peers. We did not observe sex differences. Findings provide greater specification of the protective role of maternal responsiveness for self-regulation in children with PTE and help clarify mechanisms that may underscore trajectories of exposure-related behavioral disinhibition.

Valence matters: An electrophysiological study on how emotions influence cognitive performance in children.

Emotional stimuli have been found to influence cognitive performance in children, but it is not clear whether this effect varies with the cognitive demands of the task. In this study, we examined how emotional expressions influenced cognitive performance and event-related potentials (ERPs) in early and middle childhood under varying cognitive control demands. Two groups of children (4.5-6.0 and 7.0-8.5 years) completed a modified flanker task where the stimuli were faces displaying task-irrelevant emotional expressions. Emotional influence varied depending on emotional valence: Accuracy was greater for happy targets, while response time and N2 latency were longer for angry targets. In younger children only, angry targets elicited a larger late frontal negativity. Cognitive control demands did not modulate the effect of emotions on behavioral performance or ERPs, contrasting with findings in adults. Findings are discussed in relation to the dual competition model and previous work demonstrating a positivity bias in children.

Apolipoprotein E and Clusterin can magnify effects of personality vulnerability on declarative memory performance in non-demented older adults.

OBJECTIVES: Recent research has linked psychological (personality) factors and specific genetic risk polymorphisms to performance on neurocognitive phenotypes. We examined whether episodic or semantic memory performance is associated with (a) three personality traits (i.e. neuroticism, extraversion, and openness to experience), (b) two neurodegenerative-related polymorphisms (i.e. Apolipoprotein E (APOE; rs7412; rs429358), Clusterin (CLU; rs11136000)), and (c) cross-domain risk interactions (magnification effects). METHODS: Linear growth models were examined to test independent associations between personality traits and declarative memory performance, and potential interaction effects with APOE and CLU genetic risk. Normal older adults (n = 282) with personality and genetic data from the Victoria Longitudinal Study were included at baseline and for up to 14 years of follow-up. RESULTS: First, we observed that higher openness to experience levels were associated with better episodic and semantic memory. Second, three significant gene × personality interactions were associated with poorer memory performance at baseline. These synergistic effects are: (a) APOE allelic risk (ε4+) carriers with lower openness to experience levels, (b) CLU (no risk: T/T) homozygotes with higher extraversion levels, and (c) CLU (no risk: T/T) homozygotes with lower neuroticism levels. CONCLUSIONS: Specific neurodegenerative-related genetic polymorphisms (i.e. APOE and CLU) moderate and magnify the risk contributed by selected personality trait levels (i.e. openness to experience, extraversion) on declarative memory performance in non-demented aging. Future research could target interactions of other personality traits and genetic polymorphisms in different clinical populations to predict other neurocognitive deficits or transitions to cognitive impairment and dementia.

Systematic review of sedentary behavior and cognitive development in early childhood.

OBJECTIVE: To comprehensively review observational and experimental studies examining the relationship between sedentary behavior and cognitive development during early childhood (birth to 5years). METHOD: Electronic databases were searched in July, 2014 and no limits were imposed on the search. Included studies had to be peer-reviewed, published, and meet the a priori determined population (apparently healthy children aged birth to 5years), intervention (duration, types, and patterns of sedentary behavior), comparator (various durations, types, or patterns of sedentary behavior), and outcome (cognitive development) study criteria. Data extraction occurred in October and November 2014 and study quality and risk of bias were assessed in December 2014. RESULTS: A total of 37 studies, representing 14,487 participants from nine different countries were included. Thirty-one studies used observational study designs and six studies used experimental study designs. Across study designs, increased or higher screen time (most commonly assessed as television viewing (TV)), reading, child-specific TV content, and adult-specific TV content had detrimental (negative) associations with cognitive development outcomes for 38%, 0%, 8%, and 25% of associations reported, respectively, and beneficial (positive) associations with cognitive development outcomes for 6%, 60%, 13%, and 3% of associations reported, respectively. Ten studies were moderate quality and 27 studies were weak quality. CONCLUSIONS: The type of sedentary behavior, such as TV versus reading, may have different impacts on cognitive development in early childhood. Future research with reliable and valid tools and adequate sample sizes that examine multiple cognitive domains (e.g., language, spatial cognition, executive function, memory) are needed. Registration no. CRD42014010004.

Prenatal tobacco exposure and self-regulation in early childhood: Implications for developmental psychopathology.

Prenatal tobacco exposure (PTE) has a well-documented association with disruptive behavior in childhood, but the neurocognitive effects of exposure that underlie this link are not sufficiently understood. The present study was designed to address this gap, through longitudinal follow-up in early childhood of a prospectively enrolled cohort with well-characterized prenatal exposure. Three-year-old children (n = 151) were assessed using a developmentally sensitive battery capturing both cognitive and motivational aspects of self-regulation. PTE was related to motivational self-regulation, where children had to delay approach to attractive rewards, but not cognitive self-regulation, where children had to hold information in mind and inhibit prepotent motor responses. Furthermore, PTE predicted motivational self-regulation more strongly in boys than in girls, and when propensity scores were covaried to control for confounding risk factors, the effect of PTE on motivational self-regulation was significant only in boys. These findings suggest that PTE's impact on neurodevelopment may be greater in boys than in girls, perhaps reflecting vulnerability in neural circuits that subserve reward sensitivity and emotion regulation, and may also help to explain why PTE is more consistently related to disruptive behavior disorders than attention problems.

Modeling the emergent executive: implications for the structure and development of executive function.

In this Monograph, Buss and Spencer develop a novel theory of preschool executive function (EF) based on the principles of dynamic systems theory (DST). In this commentary, I discuss how this model contributes to our understanding of EF and highlight challenges that remain to be addressed. First, I discuss Buss and Spencer's model in the context of existing theories, and in terms of the processes thought to underlie developmental improvements in card-sorting. Next, I explore implications for our understanding of the structure of EF in early childhood. Finally, I suggest possible extensions of this approach to later development, including whether and how this work might shed light on relations between individual differences in early EF and later developmental outcomes.

Bidirectional relations between parents' discipline strategies and children's inhibitory control from early to middle childhood.

Parents' use of harsh discipline and inductive discipline are theorized to change normatively across the transition from early to middle childhood (ages 5-7 years), with harsh discipline decreasing and inductive discipline increasing. Importantly, within-person support for these changes is lacking. Additionally, these changes are argued to be driven by improvements in children's cognitive and social abilities, including inhibitory control. The present study examined within-family bidirectional relations between parents' (primarily mothers') harsh discipline, inductive discipline, and children's inhibitory control across the transition to middle childhood. Participants were 118 4-, 5-, and 6-year-olds and their primary caregivers. At two time points, separated by 12 months, parents completed a questionnaire about their use of harsh and inductive discipline, and children completed a battery of inhibitory control tasks. A latent change score model was used to examine within-family bidirectional relations. More inductive discipline at Time 1 was related to a decline in harsh discipline over the year for parents of 5- and 6-year-olds, but not 4-year-olds. Harsh discipline at Time 1 was not related to change in inductive discipline. Parental discipline was not related to the change in children's inhibitory control, nor was inhibitory control related to the change in parental discipline. Relations between inductive discipline and change in harsh discipline provide within-person support for expectations of normative change in parents' discipline strategies across the transition to middle childhood. Further research examining when parents of 4-year-olds make this transition and predictors of change in parental discipline will inform research of normative trajectories of parental discipline. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).

Longitudinal associations between executive control and developing mathematical competence in preschool boys and girls.

Executive control (EC) is related to mathematics performance in middle childhood. However, little is known regarding how EC and informal numeracy differentially support mathematics skill acquisition in preschoolers. A sample of preschoolers (115 girls, 113 boys), stratified by social risk, completed an EC task battery at 3 years, informal numeracy assessments at 3.75 and 4.5 years, and a broad mathematics assessment during kindergarten. Strong associations were observed between latent EC at age 3 and mathematics achievement in kindergarten, which remained robust after accounting for earlier informal numeracy, socioeconomic status, language and processing speed. Relations between EC and mathematics achievement were stronger in girls than in boys. Findings highlight the unique role of EC in predicting which children may have difficulty transitioning to formal mathematics instruction.

Patterns of preschool children's screen time, parent-child interactions, and cognitive development in early childhood: a pilot study.

BACKGROUND: The primary objective of this study was to explore the feasibility of a virtual study protocol for a future longitudinal study, including recruitment, study measures, and procedures. The secondary objective was to examine preliminary hypotheses of associations, including 1) the correlations between total duration and patterns of screen time and cognitive development, and 2) the differences in quality of parent-child interactions for two screen-based tasks and a storybook reading task. METHODS: Participants included 44 children aged 3 years and their parents from Edmonton, Alberta and surrounding areas. Children's screen time patterns (i.e., type, device, content, context) were parental-reported using a 2-week online daily diary design. Children's cognitive development (i.e., working memory, inhibitory control, self-control, and language) was measured virtually through a recorded Zoom session. Parent-child interactions during three separate tasks (i.e., video, electronic game, and storybook reading) were also measured virtually through a separate recorded Zoom session (n = 42). The quality of the interactions was determined by the Parent-Child Interaction System (PARCHISY). Descriptive statistics, Intra-class correlations (ICC), Spearman's Rho correlations, and a one-way repeated measures ANOVA with a post-hoc Bonferroni test were conducted. RESULTS: All virtual protocol procedures ran smoothly. Most (70%) participants were recruited from four 1-week directly targeted Facebook ads. High completion rates and high inter-rater reliability in a random sample (Diary: 95% for 13/14 days; Cognitive development: 98% 3/4 tests, ICC > 0.93; Parent-child interactions: 100% for 3 tasks, Weighted Kappa ≥ 0.84) were observed for measures. Across cognitive development outcomes, medium effect sizes were observed for five correlations, with positive correlations observed with certain content (i.e., educational screen time) and negative associations observed for total screen time and certain types (show/movie/video viewing) and contexts (i.e., co-use). Medium and large effect sizes were observed for the differences in parent-child interaction quality between the three tasks. CONCLUSIONS: The virtual study protocol appeared feasible. Preliminary findings suggest it may be important to go beyond total duration and consider type, content, and context when examining the association between screen time and cognitive development. A future longitudinal study using this virtual protocol will be conducted with a larger and more generalizable sample.

Long-term Memory Testing in Children With Typical Development and Neurodevelopmental Disorders: Remote Web-based Image Task Feasibility Study.

BACKGROUND: Neurodevelopmental disorders (NDD) cause individuals to have difficulty in learning facts, procedures, or social skills. NDD has been linked to several genes, and several animal models have been used to identify potential therapeutic candidates based on specific learning paradigms for long-term and associative memory. In individuals with NDD, however, such testing has not been used so far, resulting in a gap in translating preclinical results to clinical practice. OBJECTIVE: We aim to assess if individuals with NDD could be tested for paired association learning and long-term memory deficit, as shown in previous animal models. METHODS: We developed an image-based paired association task, which can be performed at different time points using remote web-based testing, and evaluated its feasibility in children with typical development (TD), as well as NDD. We included 2 tasks: object recognition as a simpler task and paired association. Learning was tested immediately after training and also the next day for long-term memory. RESULTS: We found that children aged 5-14 years with TD (n=128) and with NDD of different types (n=57) could complete testing using the Memory Game. Children with NDD showed deficits in both recognition and paired association tasks on the first day of learning, in both 5-9-year old (P<.001 and P=.01, respectively) and 10-14-year old groups (P=.001 and P<.001, respectively). The reaction times to stimuli showed no significant difference between individuals with TD or NDD. Children with NDD exhibited a faster 24-hour memory decay for the recognition task than those with TD in the 5-9-year old group. This trend is reversed for the paired association task. Interestingly, we found that children with NDD had their retention for recognition improved and matched with typically developing individuals by 10-14 years of age. The NDD group also showed improved retention deficits in the paired association task at 10-14 years of age compared to the TD group. CONCLUSIONS: We showed that web-based learning testing using simple picture association is feasible for children with TD, as well as with NDD. We showed how web-based testing allows us to train children to learn the association between pictures, as shown in immediate test results and those completed 1 day after. This is important as many models for learning deficits in NDD target both short- and long-term memory for therapeutic intervention. We also demonstrated that despite potential confounding factors, such as self-reported diagnosis bias, technical issues, and varied participation, the Memory Game shows significant differences between typically developing children and those with NDD. Future experiments will leverage this potential of web-based testing for larger cohorts and cross-validation with other clinical or preclinical cognitive tasks.

Executive function deficits in preschool children with ADHD and DBD.

BACKGROUND: Impairments in executive functions (EF) are consistently associated with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and to a lesser extent, with disruptive behavior disorder (DBD), that is, oppositional defiant disorder or conduct disorder, in school-aged children. Recently, larger numbers of children with these disorders are diagnosed earlier in development, yet knowledge about impairments in clinically diagnosed preschool children and the role of comorbidity is limited. Therefore, the aim of the current study was to examine EF in clinically referred preschool children with a clinical diagnosis of ADHD, DBD and ADHD + DBD. METHOD: Participants were 202 children aged 3.5-5.5 years, 61 with ADHD only, 33 with DBD only, 52 with comorbid ADHD + DBD and 56 typically developing children. Five EF tasks were administered. RESULTS: Confirmatory factor analysis showed that the two-factor model (inhibition and working memory) fit the data better than a one-factor model in this clinical sample. Preschoolers with ADHD displayed inhibition deficits, also after controlling for IQ. Likewise, preschoolers with DBD displayed impaired inhibition, but when IQ was controlled differences were carried mostly by the effect on the task where motivational demands were high (i.e. when tangible rewards were used). This pattern was also found in the interaction between ADHD and DBD; impaired inhibition in the comorbid group, however, was more severe than in the DBD group. Regarding working memory, few group differences were found. CONCLUSIONS: Clinically diagnosed preschool children with ADHD showed robust inhibition deficits, whereas preschool children with DBD showed impaired inhibition especially where motivational incentives were prominent. Severity of inhibition impairment in the comorbid group was similar to the ADHD group.

Separating the fish from the sharks: a longitudinal study of preschool response inhibition.

The development of response inhibition was investigated using a computerized go/no-go task, in a lagged sequential design where 376 preschool children were assessed repeatedly between 3.0 and 5.25 years of age. Growth curve modeling was used to examine change in performance and predictors of individual differences. The most pronounced change was observed between 3 and 3.75 years. Better working memory and general cognitive ability were related to more accurate performance at all ages, but relations with speed changed with age, where better cognitive skills were initially related to slower responding, but faster responding at later ages. Boys responded more quickly and were more accurate on go trials, whereas girls were better able to withhold responding on no-go trials.

Differential Relations of Parental Behavior to Children's Early Executive Function as a Function of Child Genotype: A Systematic Review.

Child genotype is an important biologically based indicator of sensitivity to the effects of parental behavior on children's executive function (EF) in early childhood, birth to age 5. While evidence for gene × parental behavior interactions on children's early EF is growing, researchers have called the quality of evidence provided by gene × environment interaction studies into question. For this reason, this review comprehensively examined the literature and evaluated the evidence for gene × parental behavior interactions on children's early EF abilities. Psychology and psychiatry databases were searched for published peer-reviewed studies. A total of 18 studies met inclusion criteria. Twenty-nine of 89 (33%) examined interactions were significant. However, a p-curve analysis did not find the significant interactions to be of evidential value. A high rate of false positives, due to the continued use of candidate gene and haplotype measures of child genotype and small sample sizes, likely contributed to the high rate of significant interactions and low evidential value. The use of contemporary molecular genetic measures and larger sample sizes are necessary to advance our understanding of child genotype as a moderator of parental effects on children's EF during early childhood and the biopsychosocial mechanisms underlying children's EF development during this critical period. Without these changes, future research is likely to be stymied by the same limitations as current research.

Executive control and dimensions of problem behaviors in preschool children.

BACKGROUND: Despite the widespread recognition of the importance of executive control (EC) in externalizing psychopathology, the relation between EC and problem behavior has not been well characterized, particularly in typically developing preschoolers. METHOD: Using the sample, battery of laboratory tasks, and latent variable modeling methods described in Wiebe, Espy, and Charak (2008), systematic latent dimensions of parent-rated problem behavior, measured by integrating scales from developmental and clinical traditions, were determined empirically, and then were related to EC. RESULTS: Substantial relations between EC and problem behaviors were revealed by extracting the common variance of interest and eliminating extraneous variance, which were robust to estimated child intelligence and differed somewhat in preschool boys and girls. CONCLUSION: Preschool EC measured by laboratory tasks appears to tap abilities that strongly and robustly support broad control processes enabling behavioral regulation across cognitive and emotional domains.

Using confirmatory factor analysis to understand executive control in preschool children: sources of variation in emergent mathematic achievement.

Latent variable modeling methods have demonstrated utility for understanding the structure of executive control (EC) across development. These methods are utilized to better characterize the relation between EC and mathematics achievement in the preschool period, and to understand contributing sources of individual variation. Using the sample and battery of laboratory tasks described in Wiebe, Espy and Charak (2008), latent EC was related strongly to emergent mathematics achievement in preschool, and was robust after controlling for crystallized intellectual skills. The relation between crystallized skills and emergent mathematics differed between girls and boys, although the predictive association between EC and mathematics did not. Two dimensions of the child 's social environment contributed to mathematics achievement: social network support through its relation to EC and environmental stressors through its relation with crystallized skills. These findings underscore the need to examine the dimensions, mechanisms, and individual pathways that influence the development of early competence in basic cognitive processes that underpin early academic achievement.

Switch detection in preschoolers' cognitive flexibility.

The current study addressed the role of switch detection in cognitive flexibility by testing the effect of transition cues (i.e., cues that directly signal the need to switch or maintain a given task goal) in a cued set-shifting paradigm at 5 years of age. Children performed better, especially on switch trials, when transition cues were combined with traditional task cues (i.e., cues that directly signal the relevant task on a given trial) relative to conditions without transition cues. This effect was not influenced by explicit knowledge of transition cues or transition cue transparency, suggesting that transition cues did not need to be semantically processed to be beneficial. These findings reveal that young children's difficulties in set-shifting situations stem partially from failures to monitor for the need to switch.