Parents' experiences of parenting a child with profound intellectual and multiple disabilities in France: A qualitative study.

INTRODUCTION: Parents of persons with profound intellectual and multiple disabilities (PIMD) play a major and often lifelong role in the care and support of their child. A better understanding of parents' perspectives regarding their experiences of parenting their child with PIMD is essential to support them more effectively. Although this topic has been explored extensively in Anglo-Saxon and Northern European countries, little is known about the experience of these parents in a highly institutionalized context such as that in France. OBJECTIVE: We explored parents' experiences of the activities they performed to care for their child with PIMD (namely, the 'parenting work') in the French context. METHOD: Qualitative semistructured interviews were conducted by telephone with 34 parents of persons with PIMD aged 8-35. The resulting data were analyzed using thematic analysis. RESULTS: The analysis highlighted the diversity of activities performed by parents as well as the influence of context on the forms of this parenting work. Five themes were developed: (1) navigating the challenges of obtaining medical recognition; (2) negotiating a concealed domain and becoming an expert; (3) unfolding medical and medicosocial care management; (4) navigating the challenges of daily living and (5) shaping one's child's possibilities. CONCLUSION: This study offers a better understanding of the challenges, levers and expectations of parents of children with PIMD in France. Contextual factors such as the lack of knowledge of PIMD among health professionals, access to knowledge and know-how associated with care management, the administrative complexity of access to care and equipment, institutional issues (e.g., professional turnover) and societal ableism (e.g., access to infrastructures, interpersonal discrimination) shape the work parents perform to support their child's needs. It is necessary to consider contextual aspects to better support these parents and their children. Suggestions for applications are provided in the discussion. PATIENT OR PUBLIC CONTRIBUTION: One of the researchers, a parent of a child with PIMD, supported the research design and provided feedback on the study's procedures and manuscript.

Correction: A homozygous KAT2B variant modulates the clinical phenotype of ADD3 deficiency in humans and flies.

[This corrects the article DOI: 10.1371/journal.pgen.1007386.].

Prenatal exome sequencing in 65 fetuses with abnormality of the corpus callosum: contribution to further diagnostic delineation.

PURPOSE: Abnormality of the corpus callosum (AbnCC) is etiologically a heterogeneous condition and the prognosis in prenatally diagnosed cases is difficult to predict. The purpose of our research was to establish the diagnostic yield using chromosomal microarray (CMA) and exome sequencing (ES) in cases with prenatally diagnosed isolated (iAbnCC) and nonisolated AbnCC (niAbnCC). METHODS: CMA and prenatal trio ES (pES) were done on 65 fetuses with iAbnCC and niAbnCC. Only pathogenic gene variants known to be associated with AbnCC and/or intellectual disability were considered. RESULTS: pES results were available within a median of 21.5 days (9-53 days). A pathogenic single-nucleotide variant (SNV) was identified in 12 cases (18%) and a pathogenic CNV was identified in 3 cases (4.5%). Thus, the genetic etiology was determined in 23% of cases. In all diagnosed cases, the results provided sufficient information regarding the neurodevelopmental prognosis and helped the parents to make an informed decision regarding the outcome of the pregnancy. CONCLUSION: Our results show the significant diagnostic and prognostic contribution of CMA and pES in cases with prenatally diagnosed AbnCC. Further prospective cohort studies with long-term follow-up of the born children will be needed to provide accurate prenatal counseling after a negative pES result.

Involvement of hepcidin in iron metabolism dysregulation in Gaucher disease.

Gaucher disease (GD) is an inherited deficiency of glucocerebrosidase leading to accumulation of glucosylceramide in tissues such as the spleen, liver, and bone marrow. The resulting lipid-laden macrophages lead to the appearance of "Gaucher cells". Anemia associated with an unexplained hyperferritinemia is a frequent finding in GD, but whether this pathogenesis is related to an iron metabolism disorder has remained unclear. To investigate this issue, we explored the iron status of a large cohort of 90 type I GD patients, including 66 patients treated with enzyme replacement therapy. Ten of the patients treated with enzyme replacement were followed up before and during treatment. Serum levels of hepcidin, the iron regulatory peptide, remained within the physiological range, while the transferrin saturation was slightly decreased in children. Inflammation-independent hyperferritinemia was found in 65% of the patients, and Perl's staining of the spleen and marrow smear revealed iron accumulation in Gaucher cells. Treated patients exhibited reduced hyperferritinemia, increased transferrin saturation and transiently increased systemic hepcidin. In addition, the hepcidin and ferritin correlation was markedly improved, and, in most patients, the hemoglobin level was normalized. To further explore eventual iron sequestration in macrophages, we produce a Gaucher cells model by treating the J774 macrophage cell line with a glucocerebrosidase inhibitor and showed induced local hepcidin and membrane retrieval of the iron exporter, ferroportin. These data reveal the involvement of Gaucher cells in abnormal iron sequestration, which may explain the mechanism of hyperferritinemia in GD patients. Local hepcidin-ferroportin interaction was involved in this pathogenesis.

Unexpected macrophage-independent dyserythropoiesis in Gaucher disease.

Gaucher disease is a rare inherited disease caused by a deficiency in glucocerebrosidase leading to lipid accumulation in cells of mononuclear-macrophage lineage known as Gaucher cells. Visceral enlargement, bone involvement, mild anemia and thrombocytopenia are the major manifestations of Gaucher disease. We have previously demonstrated that the red blood cells from patients exhibit abnormal properties, which indicates a new role in Gaucher disease pathophysiology. To investigate whether erythroid progenitors are affected, we examined the in vitro erythropoiesis from the peripheral CD34+ cells of patients and controls. CD34- cells were differentiated into macrophages and co-cultivated with erythroblasts. We showed an accelerated differentiation of erythroid progenitors without maturation arrest from patients compared to controls. This abnormal differentiation persisted in the patients when the same experiments were performed without macrophages, which strongly suggested that dyserythropoiesis in Gaucher disease is secondary to an inherent defect in the erythroid progenitors. The accelerated differentiation was associated with reduced cell proliferation. As a result, less mature erythroid cells were generated in vitro in the Gaucher disease cultures compared to the control. We then compared the biological characteristics of untreated patients according to their anemic status. Compared to the non-anemic group, the anemic patients exhibit higher plasma levels of growth differentiation factor-15, a marker of ineffective erythropoiesis, but they had no indicators of hemolysis and similar reticulocyte counts. Taken together, these results demonstrated an unsuspected dyserythropoiesis that was independent of the macrophages and could participate, at least in part, to the basis of anemia in Gaucher disease.

Thirteen new patients with guanidinoacetate methyltransferase deficiency and functional characterization of nineteen novel missense variants in the GAMT gene.

Guanidinoacetate methyltransferase deficiency (GAMT-D) is an autosomal recessively inherited disorder of creatine biosynthesis. Creatine deficiency on cranial proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy, and elevated guanidinoacetate levels in body fluids are the biomarkers of GAMT-D. In 74 patients, 50 different mutations in the GAMT gene have been identified with missense variants being the most common. Clinical and biochemical features of the patients with missense variants were obtained from their physicians using a questionnaire. In 20 patients, 17 missense variants, 25% had a severe, 55% a moderate, and 20% a mild phenotype. The effect of these variants on GAMT enzyme activity was overexpressed using primary GAMT-D fibroblasts: 17 variants retained no significant activity and are therefore considered pathogenic. Two additional variants, c.22C>A (p.Pro8Thr) and c.79T>C (p.Tyr27His) (the latter detected in control cohorts) are in fact not pathogenic as these alleles restored GAMT enzyme activity, although both were predicted to be possibly damaging by in silico analysis. We report 13 new patients with GAMT-D, six novel mutations and functional analysis of 19 missense variants, all being included in our public LOVD database. Our functional assay is important for the confirmation of the pathogenicity of identified missense variants in the GAMT gene.

Health status of individuals with polyhandicap across a 5-year follow-up period.

The present longitudinal study examined a large sample of individuals with PIMD/Polyhandicap to: (i) describe the evolution over time of the health status in terms of severity, (ii) identify the potential predictors of health status change. This study used the data of the French national EVAL-PLH cohort. Inclusion criteria were: individuals with PIMD/Polyhandicap; age > 3 years at the time of inclusion; age at onset of cerebral lesion younger than 3 years old. The definition of the change in health status over the 5-year period was derived from the Polyhandicap Severity Scale. Among the 875 individuals included in 2015-2016, 492 (56.2%) individuals were assessed in 2020-2021. According to the definition, 68.8% (n = 309), 64.7% (n = 310), and 80.2% (n = 368) of the individuals presented with a worsened or stable severity status based on the global score, the abilities score, and the comorbidities score, respectively. Compared with the individuals with a non-worsened health status (global score), the individuals with a stable or worsened health status were more likely to receive care in specialized rehabilitation centres, more likely to have an antenatal or progressive aetiology, and more likely to have a higher dependency level. The current study provides a robust perspective of the worsened health among persons with PIMD/Polyhandicap over time.

Development and initial validation of a screening tool for visual ability/performance of people with polyhandicap.

BACKGROUND: Visual impairments are common in people with polyhandicap although they are poorly assessed. However, evaluation of the visual abilities of these people is critical to determining treatment for impairments. OBJECTIVES: To develop and validate an easy-to-use visual-behavioural scale for assessing the visual abilities of people with polyhandicap. METHODS: The development of the Visual Assessment for People with Polyhandicap (VA-PLH) involved 2 steps: i) construction of the scale and ii) field validation. Participant selection criteria were aged > 3 years, age at onset of cerebral lesion < 3 years, a combination of motor impairment and profound intellectual impairment associated with restricted mobility (Gross Motor Function Classification System levels [GMFCS] III, IV or V), and everyday life dependence (Functional Independency Measure [FIM] <55). Vision assessment by both an orthoptist and an ophthalmologist was the reference against which were analysed the items of the scale completed by local health care workers. Acceptability, validity, and reliability were analysed. RESULTS: Amongst the 232 participants included, 217 had a complete assessment, and 33% were < 18 years of age. Ocular abnormalities were reported in 83% of participants. Visual ability was altered or insufficient in 60% of participants. The final version of the VA-PLH included 3 items related to visual reaction (Area Under Curve Receiver Operating Characteristic = 0.83). Participants were considered at-risk if they had at ≥ 1 of 3 signs present (sensitivity 83% and specificity 73%). The scale's reliability was satisfactory CONCLUSION: The VA-PLH scale provides an easy-to-use, reliable and valid measure of visual status for people with polyhandicap and may be used both in clinical practice and clinical research. In addition, this study provides an overview of the diversity of visual impairments in a large population of people with polyhandicap, showing that most experience visual challenges.

Isolated corpus callosum agenesis: a ten-year follow-up after prenatal diagnosis (how are the children without corpus callosum at 10 years of age?).

BACKGROUND: Corpus callosum agenesis (CCA) is generally diagnosed in utero. Outcome appears to be better if the malformation is isolated. The aim of this study, which is the first one with a long (10 years) and standardized follow up, was to report cognitive abilities of children with isolated CCA diagnosed prenatally. METHODS: We prospectively evaluated 17 children. Clinical examinations, neuropsychological tests were performed each year. School achievement and personal and familial data were collected. RESULTS: Twelve children completed the entire follow up. One child was finally considered to have associated CCA, because signs of fetal alcohol syndrome had become obvious. Of the 11 other children, three (27%) had borderline intelligence whereas the intelligence levels of eight (73%) were in the normal range, although half of these children experienced some difficulties in scholastic achievement. Neither epilepsy nor intellectual deficiency was noted and intellectual quotient scores correlated strongly with the mother's education level. CONCLUSION: Although prenatal diagnosis of isolated CCA is reliable, false postnatal diagnoses remain possible (10-20%) even with complete prenatal screening. Outcome is mostly favorable because intelligence is within the normal range for nearly 3/4 of the children. However, they frequently have mild learning difficulties.

Craniofacial phenotype in the branchio-oculo-facial syndrome: four case reports.

Branchio-oculo-facial syndrome represents a craniofacial disorder in which affected patients may develop a wide range of distinctive features that include cleft lip and/or palate, cervical aplastic skin defect, malformed pinna, and ocular anomalies. This study reports four new cases confirmed by the identification of mutations in the TFAP2A gene and describes in detail the findings in the craniofacial region. The four cases included two familial and two sporadic, and three have been followed since the birth. Two out of the four cases showed atypical features. One patient presented brainstem immaturity with dysregulation of sympathetic and parasympathetic systems, which have so far not been described in the literature and were associated with anxiety, panic attacks, and tiredness. Another patient had as an additional feature a hypoplastic thumb with distal implantation.

The French EVAL-PLH cohort of persons with polyhandicap.

Polyhandicap is characterized by a combination of profound intellectual disability and serious motor deficit, resulting in the extreme restriction of autonomy and communication. The aim of the EVAL-PLH (EVALuation PoLyHandicap) study is to identify the impact of socioeconomic, environmental, and epidemiological determinants on the health status of the persons with polyhandicap and the daily lives of their caregivers. EVAL-PLH is a prospective cohort study. The study involved persons with severe polyhandicap (who were cared for at reeducation centers, residential facilities, and one specialized pediatric/neurological department of a university hospital), their familial caregivers and the institutional caregivers. Data collection included sociodemographics, heath status, and psychocomportemental information. Data have been collected at 2 points (2015-2016 and 2020-2021). The French EVAL-PLH cohort is the first cohort study focusing on persons with polyhandicap, their families, and the health care workers caring for them. The sustainability of the device is essential to assist patients, families, clinicians, and health decision-making authorities in the optimization of care management.

Dystonic tremor caused by mutation of the glucose transporter gene GLUT1.

Glucose transporter 1 deficiency syndrome (GLUT1-DS) is due to heterozygous mutation of the glucose transporter type 1 gene (GLUT1/SLC2A1). GLUT1-DS is characterized by movement disorders, including paroxysmal exercise-induced dystonia (PED), as well as seizures, mental retardation and hypoglycorrhachia. Tremor was recently shown to be part of the phenotype, but its clinical and electrophysiological features have not yet been described in detail, and GLUT1 tremor reports are rare. We describe two patients, a young woman and her mother, who were referred to us for tremor. We also systematically review published cases of GLUT1-DS with tremor (14 cases, including ours), focusing on clinical features. In most cases (10/14), the tremor, which involved the limbs and voice, fulfilled clinical criteria for dystonic tremor (DT), occurring in body areas affected by dystonia. Tremor was the only permanent symptom in 2 cases. Recordings, reported here for the first time, showed an irregular 6- to 8.5-Hz tremor compatible with DT in our two patients. These findings show that tremor, and particularly DT, may be a presenting symptom of GLUT1-DS. Patients who present with dystonic tremor, with or without mental retardation, seizures, movement disorders and/or a family history, should therefore be screened for GLUT1-DS.

Further delineation of BCAP31-linked intellectual disability: description of 17 new families with LoF and missense variants.

The BCAP31 gene, located at Xq28, encodes BAP31, which plays a role in ER-to-Golgi anterograde transport. To date, BCAP31 pathogenic variants have been reported in 12 male cases from seven families (six loss of function (LoF) and one missense). Patients had severe intellectual disability (ID), dystonia, deafness, and central hypomyelination, delineating a so-called deafness, dystonia and cerebral hypomyelination syndrome (DDCH). Female carriers are mostly asymptomatic but may present with deafness. BCAP31 is flanked by the SLC6A8 and ABCD1 genes. Contiguous deletions of BCAP31 and ABCD1 and/or SLC6A8 have been described in 12 patients. Patients with deletions including BCAP31 and SLC6A8 have the same phenotype as BCAP31 patients. Patients with deletions of BCAP31 and ABCD1 have contiguous ABCD1 and DXS1375E/BCAP31 deletion syndrome (CADDS), and demonstrate a more severe neurological phenotype with cholestatic liver disease and early death. We report 17 novel families, 14 with intragenic BCAP31 variants (LoF and missense) and three with a deletion of BCAP31 and adjacent genes (comprising two CADDS patients, one male and one symptomatic female). Our study confirms the phenotype reported in males with intragenic LoF variants and shows that males with missense variants exhibit a milder phenotype. Most patients with a LoF pathogenic BCAP31 variant have permanent or transient liver enzyme elevation. We further demonstrate that carrier females (n = 10) may have a phenotype comprising LD, ID, and/or deafness. The male with CADDS had a severe neurological phenotype, but no cholestatic liver disease, and the symptomatic female had moderate ID and cholestatic liver disease.

Microcephaly: a radiological review.

Microcephaly results from inadequate brain growth during development. It may develop in utero, and therefore be present at birth, or may develop later as a result of perinatal events or postnatal conditions. The aetiology of microcephaly may be congenital (secondary to cerebral malformations or metabolic abnormalities) or acquired, most frequently following an ischaemic insult. This distinct radiological and pathological entity is reviewed with a specific focus on aetiology.

Polyhandicap and aging.

BACKGROUND: Knowledge of the health status and care management of elderly individuals with polyhandicap* is lacking; however, a better understanding of the natural course of ageing in persons with severe and complex disability would help optimize preventive and curative care management strategies. OBJECTIVES: To describe persons with severe and complex disability aged 18-68 years by providing i) a description of their health status and ii) a description of their medications, medical devices and rehabilitation procedures. METHODS: This was an 18-month cross-sectional study including people aged 18-68 years with a combination of severe motor deficiency and profound intellectual impairment. They were recruited from 4 specialized rehabilitation centres, 9 residential facilities, and a neurological department. The following data were collected: aetiology of severe and complex disability, health status, medical devices, and rehabilitation procedures. RESULTS: A total of 474 persons with severe and complex disability were included (N = 219 [18-34 years], N = 151 [35-49 years], N = 104 [50-68] years). The aetiology of severe and complex disability was unknown for 13%-17% of persons with severe and complex disability across the 3 age classes. Behavioural disorders and pain were more frequent in the oldest age classes. Elderly persons with severe and complex disability had more severe but less unstable severe and complex disability. Their neurodevelopmental was close to that of a 4-month-old child without progression across age. Gastrostomy was the most frequent device needed by the persons with severe and complex disability. CONCLUSIONS: The longevity of persons with severe and complex disability is improving; some of these persons, among whom are the least unstable and with less comorbidity, can survive for more than 50 years due to the improvement of preventive actions and supportive care.

Perrault syndrome: report of four new cases, review and exclusion of candidate genes.

We report on two sporadic and two familial new cases with sensorineural hearing impairment and ovarian dysgenesis which are the cardinal signs of Perrault syndrome in females. Only one of them has a nervous system defect. We reviewed all the published cases of Perrault syndrome in order to define the clinical variability and to evaluate the frequency of the neurological anomalies in this clinical entity. Moreover we excluded GJB2, POLG, and FOXL2 as candidate genes in Perrault syndrome.

Lung disease in Niemann-Pick disease.

BACKGROUND: Lung involvement in children with Niemann-Pick disease has rarely been studied systematically. OBJECTIVE: To assess the involvement of the lung and the value of bronchoalveolar lavage in children with Niemann-Pick diseases. DESIGN: Retrospective analysis of patient records. PATIENTS: Thirteen patients, with type A (n = 1), type B (n = 10), and type C (n = 2) Niemann-Pick disease, aged 2 months to 9 years at diagnosis, were included in the study. INTERVENTIONS: Lung involvement was assessed by clinical evaluation, chest radiograph, lung computed tomography (CT) scan, pulmonary function tests, and bronchoalveolar lavage fluid analysis. RESULTS: Respiratory symptoms were present at diagnosis in 10 patients and developed during follow up in the three other patients. All patients showed signs of interstitial lung disease on chest X-ray and lung CT scan. Bronchoalveolar lavage fluid analysis (n = 7) revealed a marked accumulation of foamy macrophages (Niemann-Pick cells) in all patients. At follow up, one patient died of respiratory failure, five patients required long term oxygen therapy and seven other patients presented a chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (n = 6) or chronic cough (n = 1). CONCLUSION: Lung disease was observed in all the patients included in the present study. Bronchoalveolar lavage may be useful in Niemann-Pick diseases by showing the presence of characteristic Niemann-Pick cells.

Early neurological phenotype in 4 children with biallelic PRODH mutations.

Hyperprolinemia type I (HPI) results from a deficiency of proline oxidase (POX), involved in the first step in the conversion of proline to glutamate. Diverse phenotypes were described in patients with HPI, prior to the identification of the POX gene (PRODH): whereas various patients were asymptomatic, others had neurological and extraneurological defects. The PRODH gene is located in the region deleted in velocardiofacial syndrome (VCFS). Heterozygous and homozygous mutations have been identified in patients with variable hyperprolinemia and various features (patients with schizophrenia, chromosome 22q11 microdeletions and/or neurological defects). A functional study has divided the PRODH missense mutations into three groups: those leading to mild, moderate, or severe reduction of POX activity. In this study, we report four unrelated children with HPI and a homogeneous severe neurological phenotype. We identified biallelic abnormalities in PRODH in these patients that led to severe reduction of POX activity. These included missense and non-sense mutations, deletions of PRODH and a 22q11 microdeletion. Four other children have been reported with severe biallelic PRODH mutations. The phenotype of these eight patients associates early psychomotor development delay with predominant cognitive defects, autistic features and epilepsy. Their values of hyperprolinemia ranged from 400 to 2200 micromol/L. Patients with biallelic PRODH alterations resulting in severely impaired POX activity had an early onset and severe neurological features. Thus, children with this phenotype and those with a microdeletion in chromosome 22q11, especially those with mental retardation and autistic features, should be tested for hyperprolinemia. Hyperprolinemic patients should be screened for PRODH mutations.

Type 2 Gaucher disease: 15 new cases and review of the literature.

OBJECTIVES: To provide a description of type 2 Gaucher disease. To attempt to define type 2 Gaucher disease within the spectrum of early-onset neuronopathic Gaucher disease. BACKGROUND: Type 2 Gaucher disease is a rare disorder due to glucocerebrosidase deficiency that comprises a rapidly progressing neurological degeneration associated with visceral signs. Most data collected rely on the description of single cases or siblings. Cases of perinatal-lethal Gaucher disease are frequently considered as type 2 Gaucher patients, though the clinical presentation is different. METHODS: We retrospectively studied the clinical history of 15 original acute Gaucher disease patients and reviewed the available data of 104 published cases of early-onset neuronopathic Gaucher disease, including 61 patients with the acute type and 43 cases of the perinatal-lethal form. RESULTS: The neurological presentation of type 2 Gaucher disease is homogeneous and characterized by precocious, severe, and rapidly progressive brainstem degeneration in the foreground. The most frequent initial signs are hyperextension of the neck, swallowing impairment, and strabismus. Provoked asphyxic episodes generally appear in a second time. They are followed by prolonged spontaneous apneas that seem to be the main pejorative feature. Other neurological signs may be observed, but epilepsy, myoclonic epilepsy/myoclonus, trismus, stridor, and progressive microcephaly are less characteristic. Psychomotor regression may occur, but is not a typical feature of the disease onset. Chronic or subacute pulmonary disease predominates in the visceral involvement. Hepatosplenomegaly, failure to thrive, thrombocytopenia, and anemia are the other remarkable, albeit non-specific, features. The inflammatory component of Gaucher disease is underlined by the addition of unexplained fever to this systemic clinical picture. The natural history and particular signs of perinatal-lethal Gaucher disease do not belong to the type 2 Gaucher disease phenotype. CONCLUSION: Type 2 Gaucher disease is a clinically homogeneous entity. The specificity of the neurological involvement is sufficient to suspect the diagnosis at the onset of the disease. Type 2 and perinatal-lethal Gaucher diseases are easily distinguishable in most cases.