Food insecurity is associated with multiple psychological and behavioural problems among adolescents in five Caribbean countries.

The study aimed to assess associations between food insecurity and multiple psychological and behavioural problems among adolescents in five Caribbean countries. Data from national and cross-sectional school health surveys from 9,956 adolescents (15 years, median age) in Trinidad and Tobago, Suriname, Jamaica, Anguilla and the Dominican Republic in 2016-2017 were analyzed in 2016-2017. Results show that the prevalence of moderate (rarely or sometimes) past-month food insecurity was 35.9% and severe (mostly or always) food insecurity was 4.6%. Severe food insecurity among adolescents ranged from 2.9% in Dominican Republic to 11.2% in Suriname. In adjusted logistic regression analyses, the higher severity of food insecurity was associated with negative psychological outcomes (loneliness, suicidal ideation, suicide plan, suicide attempt, anxiety, current tobacco use and any trouble from alcohol use) and negative behavioural outcomes (truancy, bullied, physically attacked, physical injury, and multiple sexual partners). Two out of five adolescents experienced some form of food security. Food interventions, such as school feeding programmes, are warranted to reduce negative psychosocial outcomes.

Inadequate Coping Strategies of Men who Have Committed Sexual Aggression Against Women: A Study of Their Developmental Antecedents.

Several researchers have found that men who have committed sexual aggression have inadequate coping strategies (e.g., paraphilic sexual fantasies, substance abuse). However, very few researchers have empirically examined the factors potentially associated with the development of these strategies. In 2011, Maniglio hypothesized that the inadequate coping strategies of men who have committed sexual aggression are the result of childhood victimization, mediated by internalized psychological problems. The present study therefore empirically tested this hypothesis in a Canadian sample of 205 men who had committed sexual aggression against women, of whom 37 committed sexual murder. Structural equation modeling (SEM) resulted in the identification of several direct and indirect trajectories leading from childhood victimization (psychological, physical, sexual) to the development of inadequate coping strategies (paraphilic sexual fantasies, alcohol and drug use) mediated by internalized psychological problems (e.g., anxiety, depression, social isolation). The theoretical and clinical implications of these developmental trajectories are discussed.

Incontinence and sleep disturbances in young children: A population-based study.

AIMS: Nocturnal enuresis (NE), daytime urinary incontinence (DUI), fecal incontinence (FI), as well as sleep and behavioral problems are common in young children. The aim of this study was to analyze the association of sleep and psychological parameters for all types of incontinence in a representative sample of young children. METHODS: Six hundred thirty eight (of 1161) children with a mean age of 5.9 years (50.9% boys) were assessed during their mandatory school entry examination. The participation rate was 55%. Instruments included the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire, the Children's Sleep Habits Questionnaire and other clinical questions. Incontinence was diagnosed according to ICCS standards. Constipation was assessed by two questions. RESULTS: 17.1% of children had at least one type of incontinence, 14.8% had NE, 5.0% DUI, 2.1% FI, and 4.8% were constipated. 6.7% of children had clinically relevant psychological problems. 22.7% of children had sleep problems regularly (5-7 times/week). A wide variety of sleep problems were reported. Children with incontinence were not affected by a higher rate of sleep problems. Children with NE had fewer night wakings and those with constipation fewer parasomnias. Sleep and psychological problems were significantly associated, especially in children with DUI and FI. CONCLUSIONS: Sleep and behavioral problems are common in young children. Psychological problems have a clear impact on sleep. Young children with incontinence do not have more sleep problems than continent children. Therefore, both sleep and psychological problems should be addressed in young children with incontinence.

Family Functioning Profiles in Emerging Adults: Associations with Personal and Parental Psychological Problems.

Although recent research has examined family profiles in younger children, emerging adults have not been examined as extensively despite evidence that families continue to be important to emerging adults. The current study examined family functioning profiles and associated psychological problems of both offspring and parents from the perspective of 585 college-attending emerging adults. Results supported six profiles where lower functioning groups generally had more psychological problems relative to higher functioning groups and with specific maternal and paternal differences. The current study advances family functioning research by demonstrating that family profiles can be identified and associated with psychological problems for both parents and emerging adults.

Maternal Psychological Problems During Pregnancy and Child Externalizing Problems: Moderated Mediation Model with Child Self-regulated Compliance and Polygenic Risk Scores for Aggression.

A potential pathway underlying the association between prenatal exposure to maternal psychological problems and childhood externalizing problems is child self-regulation. This prospective study (N = 687) examined whether self-regulated compliance mediates the relation between maternal affective problems and hostility during pregnancy and childhood externalizing problems, and explored moderation by child polygenic risk scores for aggression and sex. Self-regulated compliance at age 3 was observed in mother-child interactions, and externalizing problems at age 6 were reported by mothers and teachers. Polygenic risk scores were calculated based on a genome-wide association study of aggressive behavior. Self-regulated compliance mediated the associations between maternal psychological problems and externalizing problems. Aggression PRS was associated with higher externalizing problems reported by mothers. No evidence was found of moderation by aggression PRS or sex. These findings support the hypothesis that maternal psychological problems during pregnancy might influence externalizing problems through early self-regulation, regardless of child genetic susceptibility or sex.

The Italian version of the Reflective Functioning Questionnaire: Validity within a sample of adolescents and associations with psychological problems and alexithymia.

OBJECTIVES: This study aims to test the psychometric proprieties of the Reflective Functioning Questionnaire (RFQ) applied to younger (13-16 years) and older (17-20 years) Italian adolescents examining (1) the factorial structure of RFQ; (2) its invariance across age and sex; (3) correlations between RFQ subscale scores, as well as the associations of the RFQ with (4) psychological problems and alexithymia dimensions. METHODS: A cross-sectional study was conducted with 593 adolescents between the ages of 13 and 20 years old recruited from the community within Italy. These participants completed the RFQ, Symptom Checklist-90, and Toronto Alexithymia Scale. RESULTS: The two-factor structure of the RFQ was confirmed. However, higher internal consistency of RFQ was obtained by removing two items that seemed problematic within this sample. Using a six-item version of RFQ, the two-factor structure was invariant across adolescent age and sex. Significant correlations among RFQ subscale scores, and between RFQ subscales with both psychological problems and alexithymia dimensions were found. CONCLUSIONS: Preliminary results reveal a short version of RFQ (six-item) is a suitable measure to assess mentalizing in adolescents in the Italian context.

Psychotherapy outcome research: Implications of a new clinical taxonomy.

Since the publication of DSM-III in 1980, the scientist-practitioner gap in clinical psychology has expanded, as almost all outcome research in clinical psychology has been on diagnosed mental disorders within a medical model using drug trial methodologies, whereas most practising clinicians undertake functional analyses and case formulations of clinical psychological problems (CPPs) and then apply tailored interventions within an ongoing hypothesis-testing methodology. But comparatively reliable assessment and generalizable conclusions in psychotherapy outcome research require a comprehensive theory-derived conception or operational definition of 'CPPs', standardized functional analyses, and a taxonomy of CPPs comparable to DSM's listings of mental disorders. An alternative conception and taxonomy of CPPs have recently been proposed, offering improvements in the reliability and generalizability of case formulation-based psychotherapy outcome research. It conceives of CPPs as instances of the formation and operation of self-sustaining problem-maintaining circles (PMCs) of psychological-level causal elements-that is, at the level of cognitions, behaviours, emotions, and events or situations (stimuli). The paper describes this new conception of CPPs, a subsequent nascent taxonomy of evidence-based PMCs which standardizes the underlying mechanisms that maintain CPPs, and ensuing benefits to research (as well as to practice) in clinical psychology. These benefits include being able to encompass all treatment-worthy CPPs, not just diagnosable mental disorders; to assess theory-derived intervention strategies, not just arbitrary therapy bundles; and to directly feed back into psychological theories, not just expand an atheoretical list of patented "evidence supported therapies."

MEDICAL, SOCIAL AND PSYCHOLOGICAL ASPECTS OF ASSISTING THE FAMILIES OF THE MILITARY PERSONNEL OF UKRAINE WHO PERFORMED COMBAT TASKS IN EXTREME CONDITIONS.

OBJECTIVE: The aim: The aim of the research is to study the medical, social and psychological aspects of providing assistance to families of military personnel who performed combat missions in extreme conditions and to develop the main directions for improving the organization of providing psychological assistance to such families in Ukraine. PATIENTS AND METHODS: Materials and methods: The research material is the legislation of Ukraine, foreign and domestic experience in providing psychological assistance to families of military personnel, statistical information. In the course of the study, the method of systematization, the comparative method, content analysis, the research of products of activity, concretization, abstraction and generalization of statistical data were applied. CONCLUSION: Conclusions: The study of foreign and current domestic experience in providing psychological assistance to families of military personnel shows that today the need for its integration with such an important area as medical and social work is not fully taken into account. The break in unity between these areas significantly impairs the effectiveness and completeness of the rehabilitation of servicemen, violates the integrity and staged provision of all-round assistance to the families of Ukrainian combatants. Along with this, it should be noted the increasingly significant role that the work of specialists in the field of Civil-Military Cooperation takes, who, among other tasks, in special cases are obliged to organize work with members of the families of military personnel. To design the main directions for improving work with families, we analyzed the ramified structure of state and non-state organizations and institutions, volunteer and research centers, support groups for military personnel, veterans and their family members, which today operate in the United States. Proceeding from this and the realities of solving the problem in Ukraine, the main directions and proposals for the organization of medical, social and psychological assistance to the families of Ukrainian military personnel who performed combat missions in extreme conditions were formulated.

Psychological problems among the university students in Saudi Arabia during the COVID-19 pandemic.

BACKGROUND: The 2019 coronavirus disease (COVID-19) pandemic is a public health emergency that represents a challenge to psychological health. This study aimed to assess the psychological conditions among university students in Saudi Arabia during the COVID-19 pandemic. METHODS: During the period between the 4th and 18th of June 2020, the students of Umm AlQura University in Saudi Arabia were invited to complete an online survey. The survey assessed their sociodemographic characteristics, educational disciplines, and manifestations of psychological health problems including depression, anxiety, and stress as determined by the Arabic version of the Depression Anxiety Stress Scale-21 (DASS-21). RESULTS: The study included 936 university students (56.4% women and 43.6% men). Of them, 41.1% had depressive symptoms (31.7% mild to moderate and 9.4% severe to very severe), 26.9% had anxiety symptoms (15.8% mild to moderate and 11.1% severe to very severe), and 22.4% had stress symptoms (15.2% mild to moderate and 7.2% severe to very severe). Students who reported having a friend or relative infected with or died of COVID-19, watching or reading news about the pandemic ≥2 hours/day, and not getting emotional support from family, university, and society were more likely to show psychological problems. CONCLUSION: Symptoms of depression, anxiety, and stress were common among Saudi university students during the COVID-19 pandemic. Psychological counselling and support should be provided to university students in Saudi Arabia.

Is the "Brainwork Intervention" effective in reducing sick leave for non-permanent workers with psychological problems? Results of a controlled clinical trial.

BACKGROUND: Both the presence of psychological problems and the absence of an employment contract are related to long-term sickness absence, prolonged work disability and unemployment. Studies researching the effectiveness of return-to-work interventions on these non-permanent workers, including unemployed and temporary agency workers and workers with an expired fixed-term contract, are lagging behind. Therefore, a return-to-work intervention called "Brainwork" was developed. The aim of this study was to assess the effectiveness of the 'Brainwork Intervention' in reducing the duration of sick leave compared to usual care over a 12-month follow-up. METHODS: In a multicenter controlled clinical trial, using a quasi-randomization procedure, we compared the Brainwork Intervention (n = 164) to usual care (n = 156). The primary outcome was the duration of sick leave. Secondary outcomes were the duration of sick leave starting from Social Security Agency transfer; the proportion of workers returned to work; the number of hours of paid employment during the follow-up period; the degree of worker participation; the level of psychological complaints; and the self-efficacy for return to work. Protocol adherence (Brainwork Intervention) was considered sufficient when at least three of the five protocol steps were followed. Cox regressions, linear and ordinal regression, and Mixed Model analyses were performed. RESULTS: All 320 participants were analyzed. The Brainwork Intervention resulted in a non-significant reduction of the duration of sick leave compared to usual care (269 days versus 296 days; HR = 1.29; 95% CI 0.94-1.76; p = 0.11). For those working (46%) during the 12-month follow-up, the mean number of hours of paid employment was non-significantly higher in the usual care group (682 h versus 493 h; p = 0.053). No significant differences were found for other secondary outcomes. Protocol adherence was 10%. CONCLUSIONS: The Brainwork Intervention as performed with a low protocol adherence did not result in a significant reduction of the duration of sick leave compared to usual care. It remains unclear what the results would have been if the Brainwork Intervention had been executed according to protocol. TRIAL REGISTRATION: The Netherlands Trial Register (NTR); NTR3976 (old registration number NTR4190). Registered September 27th 2013.

Internet Addiction, Sleep Quality and Depressive Symptoms Amongst Medical Students in Delhi, India.

Today, the internet has become an important element in people's lives, and owing to internet access becoming widespread, it has resulted in internet addiction. It is a major concern amongst medical students aiming to develop into health professionals. The implications of this addiction as well as its association with sleep and depression affects their studies, impacts their career goals and has detrimental consequences for society as a whole. The objectives of this study were to assess the proportion of medical undergraduate students and interns with internet addiction (IA), depressive symptoms and poor sleep quality and to study the association of IA with sleep quality and depressive symptoms. A cross-sectional questionnaire-based study was carried out in a medical college in Delhi. Universal sample consisting of all the medical students from first to final year (n = 185) and interns (n = 37) enrolled during the time of the study were included. Sleep quality, internet addiction and depressive symptoms in these students was assessed using Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index (PSQI) Young's Internet Addiction Test (YIAT) and Patient Health Questionnaire-9 (PHQ) respectively. The average YIAT score was 33.16 ± 15.68. Overall 18%, 59.9%, 46.8% of students scored above validated cutoff scores for internet addiction, poor sleep quality and depression respectively. Prevalence of IA among males and females were 20.4% and 12.9% respectively. Significant correlations were found between potential IA, sleep quality and depression (p < 0.001). The study concluded a strong correlation between IA, disturbed sleep quality and depression. Identifying medical students with potential IA is important because this addiction often coexists with other psychological problems. Thus timely remedial actions and tailored interventions are required to combat IA among medical students.

Long-Term Effects of Homophobic Stigmatization During Adolescence on Problem Behavior in Emerging Adult Offspring of Lesbian Parents.

The long-term impact of homophobic stigmatization on adolescents with lesbian parents has not been explored. This longitudinal study investigated the effects of homophobia experienced during adolescence on problem behavior among emerging adult offspring of lesbian parents. The 72 offspring (37 females and 35 males; all cisgender and 25 years old) were predominantly White, heterosexual, and highly educated. As 17-year-old adolescents, 40.3% (n = 29) reported that they had been treated unfairly because of having lesbian parents. Experienced homophobia during adolescence was indirectly associated with internalizing problems during emerging adulthood through psychological problems during adolescence and meaning in life in emerging adulthood. Adolescent experiences of homophobia were also indirectly related to externalizing problems during emerging adulthood through adolescent psychological problems, but not through meaning in life in emerging adulthood. These findings indicate that long-term effects of homophobic stigmatization during adolescence persist into adulthood. School and community interventions should include all types of families in their diversity appreciation programs.

Health in adulthood after severe anorexia nervosa in adolescence: a study of exposed and unexposed women.

OBJECTIVE: To compare the global health status, frequency of somatic and psychological problems, and alcohol use in adulthood among women hospitalized in adolescence for severe anorexia nervosa (AN), with a matched control sample from the general population. METHOD: Women (n = 86) who had been hospitalized for AN 9.31 ± 1.82 years previously were compared with 258 controls matched for gender, age, and socio-professional category. Data were retrieved from a French survey on health and social insurance coverage, and was mainly collected by self-report, except for the assessment of current eating disorders for those previously hospitalized for AN (assessed with the MINI). RESULTS: The women who had been hospitalized for AN reported significantly poorer current health status compared to controls (OR 2.9, 95% CI 1.5-5.79). According to the MINI, 13 women previously hospitalized with severe AN still presented an eating disorder (ED). Women with past AN reported more frequent acute throat infections (OR 4.9, 95% CI 1.81-13.51), gastralgia (OR 3.6, 95% CI 1.9-6.83), gastro-oesophageal reflux (OR 5.279, 95%CI 2.11-13.22), excess blood cholesterol or triglyceride levels (OR 2.55, 95% CI 1.03-6.33), anxiety (OR 8.7, 95% CI 3.48-21.8) and depression (OR 5.02 (2.8-9.01). These differences remained significant and of the same order of magnitude in sensitivity analyses among subjects with previous AN but without current ED, except for perceived health status and excess cholesterol and triglyceride levels. DISCUSSION: Women who had been hospitalized for severe AN reported more symptoms 10 years after treatment, implies psychological and somatic follow-up in the long term. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: Level III, case-control analytic study.

Children's mental health and recreation: Limited evidence for associations with screen use.

AIM: This study examined the direct and indirect associations between childhood psychopathology symptoms, screen use, media multitasking and participation in non-digital recreation. METHODS: Psychopathology symptoms, media use, media multitasking, participation in sports, social clubs and reading/games were reported by 520 parents about their 3- to 11-year-old children. The data were analysed using structural equation modelling. RESULTS: There were bidirectional negative associations between sports participation and emotional problems (ß = -0.16, P < .001 and ß = -0.15, P < .001); attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) symptoms were associated with reduced reading/games (ß = -0.14, P = .004). A bidirectional positive association was found between media use and conduct problems (ß = 0.10, P = .015 and ß = 0.14, P = .015). Increased media multitasking was indirectly associated with elevated symptoms of ADHD via a reduction in reading/games (ß = 0.10, P = .026). However, there was no evidence that screen use mediated the associations between psychopathology symptoms and non-digital recreation. CONCLUSION: Depending on the specific psychological difficulties, children are either less likely to participate in non-digital recreation or are more likely to use screen media or multitask with media. Interventions for children, who experience emotional or behavioural difficulties, are needed to improve participation in non-digital recreation.

Cross-Cultural Examination of Links between Parent-Adolescent Communication and Adolescent Psychological Problems in 12 Cultural Groups.

Internalizing and externalizing problems increase during adolescence. However, these problems may be mitigated by adequate parenting, including effective parent-adolescent communication. The ways in which parent-driven (i.e., parent behavior control and solicitation) and adolescent-driven (i.e., disclosure and secrecy) communication efforts are linked to adolescent psychological problems universally and cross-culturally is a question that needs more empirical investigation. The current study used a sample of 1087 adolescents (M = 13.19 years, SD = 0.90, 50% girls) from 12 cultural groups in nine countries including China, Colombia, Italy, Jordan, Kenya, Philippines, Sweden, Thailand, and the United States to test the cultural moderation of links between parent solicitation, parent behavior control, adolescent disclosure, and adolescent secrecy with adolescent internalizing and externalizing problems. The results indicate that adolescent-driven communication, and secrecy in particular, is intertwined with adolescents' externalizing problems across all cultures, and intertwined with internalizing problems in specific cultural contexts. Moreover, parent-driven communication efforts were predicted by adolescent disclosure in all cultures. Overall, the findings suggest that adolescent-driven communication efforts, and adolescent secrecy in particular, are important predictors of adolescent psychological problems as well as facilitators of parent-adolescent communication.

Disordered Eating Behaviors Among Italian Adolescents with Type 1 Diabetes: Exploring Relationships with Parents' Eating Disorder Symptoms, Externalizing and Internalizing Behaviors, and Body Image Problems.

The purpose of this study is to examine associations of disordered eating behaviors (DEBs) with body image problems, parents' eating disorder symptoms, and emotional and behavioral problems among adolescents with type 1 diabetes (T1D). 200 adolescents (M age = 15.24 ± 1.45 years) with T1D completed a self-report measure of DEBs and body ideal internalization, and their parents completed self-report measures of parents' eating problems and child's psychological symptoms. Seventy-three (36.5%) adolescents were DEPS-r-positive (scores ≥ 20), with higher rates among girls (χ2 = 9.034, p = .003). Adolescents with T1D and DEBs reported lower SES, worse metabolic control, higher zBMI (p < .001), more eating disorder symptoms, more body image problems, and more emotional and behavioral problems than adolescents with T1D but no DEBs (all p < .05). Parents of adolescents with DEBs showed higher levels of bulimia (p = .028) than parents of adolescents without DEBs. In both genders, pressure to conform to societal norms about body image (p < .01) and externalization symptoms (p < .05) emerged as significant predictors of DEBs. Findings suggest that adolescents with T1D and DEBs showed an alarming psychological condition, with higher level of body image and more emotional and behavioral problems.

Social support and clinical improvement in COVID-19 positive patients in China.

OBJECTIVES: To explore the relationship between psychosocial support related factors and the mental health of COVID-19 positive patients. METHODS: This exploratory study of 35 COVID-19 positive patients were enrolled between February 1 to March 1, 2020. Sleep quality, depression, anxiety, and social support were measured and social support related data of participants were collected. Psychological intervention was administered and patients were followed two weeks post intervention. Linear regression was performed to explore the relationship between psychosocial risk factors and improvement of psychological symptoms. FINDINGS: Thirty-two individuals exhibited sleep, depressive and anxiety symptoms which improved post support intervention. At baseline, symptoms were associated with gender, severity of pneumonia, social support. Better social support at follow-up and improvement from COVID-19 predicted improvement in their psychological symptoms. DISCUSSION: This initial evidence from China may stress the importance of administering psychosocial intervention during the treatment of COVID-19 for better patient outcomes in other countries.

COVID-19 Population Survey of Iran (COPSIR) study protocol: Repeated survey on knowledge, risk perception, preventive behaviors, psychological problems, essential needs, and public trust during COVID-19 epidemic.

Background: The worldwide emergence and rapid expansion of COVID-19 emphasizes the need to assess the knowledge gap and to predict the disease-related behaviors and reactions during this epidemic. Methods and design: COVID19 Population Survey of Iran (COPSIR) is a repeated cross sectional survey that will be conducted in 8 waves. In each wave, 515 Iranian adults aged 18 years or older will be randomly selected and interviewed by phone. The study waves will be performed at approximately weekly intervals. The survey tool is adapted from COSMO (COVID-19 Snapshot MOnitoring) study. This study will provide information on trends of knowledge, risk perception, preventive behaviors, psychological problems, essential needs, and public trust among Iranian adults during COVID-19 epidemic. Discussion: The key findings of each wave will be immediately reported to the National Headquarters for Coronavirus Control to set better policies for disease control and prevention. Moreover, if a message is extracted from the results of this study that needs to be communicated to the public, it will be done through the mass media.

Childhood gender-typed behavior and emotional or peer problems: a prospective birth-cohort study.

BACKGROUND: Retrospective and cross-sectional studies often report associations between childhood gender nonconformity and greater emotional and peer difficulties. This study used the ALSPAC birth cohort to investigate relationships between childhood gender-typed behavior and peer and emotional problems throughout childhood and adolescence. METHODS: A total of 11,192 participants had at least one measure of parent-rated gender-typed behavior in infancy; 7,049 participants had a measure of child-rated gender-typed behavior at 8.5 years. Separate linear mixed regression models were fitted to assess whether parent-rated and child-rated gender-typed behaviors were associated with emotional and peer problems across childhood and adolescence (6-16 years old). The effect of adding covariates (self-esteem, abuse, bullying, feeling accepted by peers, and feeling different) on these relationships was assessed. RESULTS: For boys, more gender-nonconforming behavior was associated with greater subsequent emotional and peer problems in childhood and adolescence. Adjusting for self-esteem, relational bullying victimization, feeling different, or feeling accepted by peers reduced some of these associations. In contrast, for girls, more gender-nonconforming behavior was associated with fewer emotional problems in childhood and adolescence. In girls, self-reported gender-nonconforming behavior was also associated with fewer parent-rated peer problems but parent-rated gender-nonconforming behavior was associated with more parent-rated peer problems; this latter association was partly explained by self-esteem, bullying, and abuse victimization. These associations were statistically significant but small. CONCLUSIONS: Overall, more female-typical behaviors were generally associated with greater subsequent emotional and peer problems, for both boys and girls. Future studies should investigate factors that reduced these associations, as well as potential negative effects of female-typical behaviors or advantages of male-typical ones. As this was a 14-year longitudinal study, the relationships between gender-role behaviors and emotional/peer problems warrant further research despite the small association sizes.

Children with two homes: Psychological problems in relation to living arrangements in Nordic 2- to 9-year-olds.

AIM: Joint physical custody, children spending equal time in each parents' respective home after a parental divorce, is particularly common in Nordic compared with other Western countries. Older children have been shown to fare well in this practice but for young children there are few existing studies. The aim of this paper is to study psychological problems in 2- to 9-year-old Nordic children in different family forms. METHODS: Total symptom score according to the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire as well as scores showing externalizing problems were compared among 152 children in joint physical custody, 303 in single care and 3207 in nuclear families through multiple linear regression analyses. RESULTS: Children in single care had more psychological symptoms than those in joint physical custody (B = 1.08; 95% CI 0.48 to 1.67) and those in nuclear families had the least reported symptoms (B = -0.53; 95% CI -0.89 to -0.17). Externalizing problems were also lower in nuclear families (B = -0.28, 95% CI -0.52 to -0.04) compared with joint physical custody after adjusting for covariates. CONCLUSIONS: Young children with non-cohabiting parents suffered from more psychological problems than those in intact families. Children in joint physical custody had a lower total problem score than those in single care after adjusting for covariates. Longitudinal studies with information on family factors before the separation are needed to inform policy of young children's post-separation living arrangements.