Impact of air pollution on human health in different geographical locations of Nepal.

According to a recent survey, Nepal's urban air quality has been classified as one of the worst in the globe. A large portion of the country's population is subjected to health risks caused by air pollution. As Nepal has a wide variation in altitude coupled with socio-cultural and biological diversities, it is important to understand the different health hazards in the different geographical regions - Terai, Hills and Mountains. Constantly increasing physical infrastructures (such as transport vehicles, open burning of plastics and other fuels) are the main reasons for the escalating air pollution in the country. This study aims to critically review the current air pollution status in different geographical locations along with its impacts on public health in the country. It has been revealed that irrespective of geographic location, the air pollutants interfere with different human physiological systems related to respiration as well as cardiovascular, ophthalmic, and gastrointestinal functioning. Further, the research findings highlighting the influence of prolonged exposure of the population to the air pollution leading to the significant number of deaths have been presented. A notable rise in the number of hospitalized patients suffering from illnesses related to above mentioned pollution borne cases has been reported.

Broad scale functional connectivity for Asian elephants in the Nepal-India transboundary region.

The Nepal-India transboundary region hosts one of Asia's most complex large mammal assemblages, including a small (but growing) population of Asian elephants (Elephas maximus). These elephants occur in four widespread and geographically disjunct subpopulations, and some of them undergo seasonal transboundary movements. We conducted a broad-scale evaluation of the amount and quality of elephant habitat available in the region and of functional landscape connectivity between and within subpopulations using Maxent, circuit theory, and least-cost path analysis. Habitat suitability was highly influenced by abiotic geographical factors (altitude and precipitation) and less by ecological factors (habitat heterogeneity, plant productivity) and human disturbance (distance to settlements). The region had a relatively small amount of high and optimal suitability habitat (12.6% out of 93,700 km2) but all subpopulations seem to be far from carrying capacity, suggesting ample potential for further population growth. Landscape connectivity was higher between and within the west and far-west subpopulations, which should be considered a single subpopulation. The central and ea st subpopulations, however, had low to very low between-subpopulation connectivity. Conservation priorities include maintaining the current connectivity in the west subpopulation and across the border in the east, and protecting high-quality habitats in eastern Nepal. Restoring connectivity between the central and other subpopulations is possible if the number of elephants continues growing, and it should be a long-term conservation aspiration. Maintaining and enhancing landscape connectivity in this region requires transboundary cooperation and coordination between Nepali and Indian authorities. If successful, it will bring considerable benefits for the conservation of elephants and other wildlife.

Effects of faecal inorganic content variability on quantifying glucocorticoid and thyroid hormone metabolites in large felines: Implications for physiological assessments in free-ranging animals.

Faecal glucocorticoid (GC) and triiodothyronine (T3) metabolites and their interactions are increasingly used to monitor perceived stress and nutritional challenges in free-ranging animals. However, a number of extrinsic and intrinsic factors including hormone-inert dietary materials, inorganic matters etc. are known to affect reliable hormone metabolite quantifications. In this study, the impacts of inorganic matter (IOM) on faecal GC (fGCMs) and T3 (fT3Ms) metabolite measure were addressed in wild tiger (n = 193 from Terai Arc landscape, India) and captive lion (n = 120 from Sakkarbaug Zoological Garden, Gujarat, India) and possible corrective measures were evaluated. The wild tiger samples contained highly variable IOM content (9-98%, mostly with > 40% IOM) compared to captive Asiatic lion (17-57%, majority with < 40% IOM). Significant correlations were observed between IOM content and tiger fGCM (r = -0.46, p = 0.000), fT3M (r = -0.58, p = 0.000) and lion fT3M measures (r = -0.43, p = 0.003). Two corrective measures viz. removing samples with ≥ 80% IOM and subsequently expressing concentrations as per gram of organic dry matter (instead of total dry matter) reduced IOM influence on tiger fGCM, fT3M and lion fT3M, without affecting lion fGCM measures. The corrective measures changed the interpretations of fT3M data of field-collected tiger samples with no significant changes in fGCM (both tiger and lion) and fT3M (lion) data. As faecal IOM content is common in many wild species, the results emphasize the need to reduce IOM-driven hormone data variation for ecologically relevant interpretations towards species conservation.

The contribution of female community health volunteers (FCHVs) to maternity care in Nepal: a qualitative study.

BACKGROUND: In resource-poor settings, the provision of basic maternity care within health centres is often a challenge. Despite the difficulties, Nepal reduced its maternal mortality ratio by 80% from 850 to an estimated 170 per 100,000 live births between 1991 and 2011 to achieve Millennium Development Goal Five. One group that has been credited for this is community health workers, known as Female Community Health Volunteers (FCHVs), who form an integral part of the government healthcare system. This qualitative study explores the role of FCHVs in maternal healthcare provision in two regions: the Hill and Terai. METHODS: Between May 2014 and September 2014, 20 FCHVs, 11 health workers and 26 service users were purposefully selected and interviewed using semi-structured topic guides. In addition, four focus group discussions were held with 19 FCHVs. Data were analysed using thematic analysis. RESULTS: All study participants acknowledged the contribution of FCHVs in maternity care. All FCHVs reported that they shared key health messages through regularly held mothers' group meetings and referred women for health checks. The main difference between the two study regions was the support available to FCHVs from the local health centres. With regular training and access to medical supplies, FCHVs in the hill villages reported activities such as assisting with childbirth, distributing medicines and administering pregnancy tests. They also reported use of innovative approaches to educate mothers. Such activities were not reported in Terai. In both regions, a lack of monetary incentives was reported as a major challenge for already overburdened volunteers followed by a lack of education for FCHVs. CONCLUSIONS: Our findings suggest that the role of FCHVs varies according to the context in which they work. FCHVs, supported by government health centres with emphasis on the use of local approaches, have the potential to deliver basic maternity care and promote health-seeking behaviour so that serious delays in receiving healthcare can be minimised. However, FCHVs need to be reimbursed and provided with educational training to ensure that they can work effectively. The study underlines the relevance of community health workers in resource-poor settings.

Exposure profiles of mercury in human hair at a terai belt of North India.

Human hair is frequently used as a bioindicator of mercury exposure. Mercury (Hg) has for centuries been a useful metal in a variety of applications. Unfortunately, this usefulness is counterbalanced by its neurotoxicological health impact. The US Environmental Protection Agency recommends keeping the hair Hg level <1.0 µg/g. Therefore, an investigation has been performed in order to ascertain the hair Hg levels among the people living at the terai belt of North India. Hair samples were collected from 111 individuals and were placed in an identified plastic bag, stapled to prevent the shift of the hair strand. Samples were analyzed by combustion, gold amalgamation, atomic absorption spectrometry (C-GA-AAS). The mean Hg level in hair was 0.28 µg/g for the whole group ranging from 0.0012 to 1.9091 µg/g. The mean hair Hg levels were 0.16 µg/g for men and 0.12 µg/g for women, indicating that men had higher hair Hg levels than women. Total hair Hg was found to be significantly associated with age, gender and fish consumption frequency. 98 % of the total sample had hair Hg concentrations less than 1.0 µg/g, i.e, within safe dose, whereas only 2 % had Hg concentrations greater than 1.0 µg/g, thereby exceeding the safe dose.

Dynamic occupancy modelling of Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) reveals increasing landscape use in Nepal.

Large mammals with general habitat needs can persist throughout mixed used landscapes, however, human-wildlife conflict frequently leads to their restriction to protected areas. Conservation efforts, especially for reducing conflicts with humans, can enhance tolerance of humans towards species like Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) in human-dominated landscapes. Here, we examine how elephant use in the Chure Terai Madhesh Landscape (CTML) covering the entire elephant range of Nepal changed between 2012 and 2020 in relationship to protection status and environmental conditions. We systematically surveyed ~ 42,000 km2 of potential habitat, by dividing the study area into 159 grid cells of 15 × 15 km2 and recorded elephant signs during the cool, dry season in three years (2012, 2018 and 2020). We analyzed the survey data in a single-species, multi-season (dynamic) occupancy modeling framework to test hypotheses regarding the influence of environmental conditions and protected area status on landscape use by elephants over time. The best-supported model included protected area effects on initial use, colonization, and detection probability as well as temporal variation in colonization and detection probability. Initial use and colonization rates were higher in protected areas, however elephants increasingly used cells located both inside and outside the protected areas, and the difference in use between protected areas and outside declined as elephants use became prevalent across most of the landscape. While elephant use was patchily distributed in the first year of surveys consistent with past descriptions of four sub-populations, elephant use consolidated into a western and eastern region in subsequent years with a gap in their distribution occurring between Chitwan and Bardiya National Parks. Our manuscript highlights the increasing landscape use by elephants in both protected areas and areas outside protected areas and suggests that management interventions that focus on reducing conflicts can promote greater use of both protected areas and areas outside of protected areas.

Prevalence of Metabolic Syndrome and Its Components in Adults with Central Obesity at Janakpur Zone, Nepal.

BACKGROUND: Urbanization, surplus energy uptake, decreased physical activities are general risk factors of metabolic syndrome However, it's status, and associated components remain unexplored in the Terai region of Nepal. This study evaluated the prevalence of metabolic syndrome and its components among adults with central obesity of Terai region of Nepal using International Diabetes Federation criteria. METHODS: Community based cross-sectional study was conducted in three Terai districts of Janakpur Zone, Nepal. A total of 378 adults having central obesity were selected using cluster sampling by camp approach. Interview, physical and clinical examination, measurement of fasting blood sugar, and lipid profile were conducted for all participants. The prevalence of metabolic syndrome and its components with 95% CI were estimated. RESULTS: The metabolic syndrome prevalence was 74.9% (95% CI:70.2-79.2%), with no significant differences between male (77.7%, 95% CI:71.0-83.5%) and female (72.2%, 95% CI: 65.2-78.3%). The most common factors observed were low high density lipoproteins with highly significant differences between male (77.7%, 95% CI:71.0-83.5%)) and female (90.2%, 95% CI: 85.094.0%-; p=0.001) and hypertriglyceridemia with significant differences between male (57.6%, 95% CI: 50.1-64.5%) and female (46.9%, 95% CI: 39.7-54.2%; p=0.037). CONCLUSIONS: Higher prevalence of metabolic syndrome and its risk factors in Janakpur of Nepal likely suggest lack of awareness and health promotion activities for metabolic syndrome and indicate an urgency for a public health program to maintain quality of life.

Patterns and determinants of elephant attacks on humans in Nepal.

Attacks on humans by Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) is an extreme form of human-elephant conflict. It is a serious issue in southern lowland Nepal where elephant-related human fatalities are higher than other wildlife. Detailed understanding of elephant attacks on humans in Nepal is still lacking, hindering to devising appropriate strategies for human-elephant conflict mitigation. This study documented spatiotemporal pattern of elephant attacks on humans, factors associated with the attacks, and human/elephant behavior contributing to deaths of victims when attacked. We compiled all the documented incidences of elephant attacks on humans in Nepal for last 20 years across Terai and Chure region of Nepal. We also visited and interviewed 412 victim families (274 fatalities and 138 injuries) on elephant attacks. Majority of the victims were males (87.86%) and had low level of education. One fourth of the elephant attacks occurred while chasing the elephants. Solitary bulls or group of subadult males were involved in most of the attack. We found higher number of attacks outside the protected area. People who were drunk and chasing elephants using firecrackers were more vulnerable to the fatalities. In contrast, chasing elephants using fire was negatively associated with the fatalities. Elephant attacks were concentrated in proximity of forests primarily affecting the socioeconomically marginalized communities. Integrated settlement, safe housing for marginalized community, and community grain house in the settlement should be promoted to reduce the confrontation between elephants and humans in entire landscape for their long-term survival.

Hypothalamus but not liver retains daily expression of clock genes during hibernation in terai tree frog (Polypedates teraiensis).

Circadian clock(s) allow an organism to be in synchrony with the surrounding environment and perform daily and seasonal physiological processes, including hibernation, migration, and reproduction. To cope with adverse environmental conditions, organisms have evolved various strategies. Insects undergo diapause, while some higher animals either migrate or hibernate/aestivate during unfavorable environmental conditions. Hibernation is an energy conservation strategy used to cope with adverse environmental conditions. Limited knowledge is available on the physiology of hibernation in non-mammalian vertebrates. Some studies suggest that metabolism is altered during amphibian hibernation, but nothing is known about the circadian clock. In the present study, we investigated daily oscillation of clock genes in the brain and liver of the terai tree frog (Polypedates teraiensis) during two annual phases of life: breeding and hibernation. Adult male terai tree frogs were procured from their natural habitat on the Mizoram University campus (23°N 92°E) during their breeding and hibernation phases. Body mass and testes weight were recorded. Animals were sacrificed at six time points: ZT1, ZT5, ZT9, ZT13, ZT17, and ZT21 (ZT0, zeitgeber time 0, indicates the sunrise time at the respective time of the year; N = 5 frogs per time point). Quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) was performed for clock genes (Bmal1, Clock, Per2, and Cry2) in the hypothalamus and liver. Our results showed that body and testes weights decreased during hibernation. Further, the hypothalamus retained daily clock gene oscillations during breeding and hibernation. However, the liver lost this daily oscillation during hibernation. The maintained rhythm in hypothalamus in contrast to other hibernating animals might be the result of the fact that these animals hibernate at a higher temperature and might be more alert. As the animals have no food intake during their hibernation season which might be the reason the animals loose their rhythm in liver clock genes. These results suggest that retaining daily clock gene oscillations in the hypothalamic clock could be important for internal time tracking and post-hibernation emergence.

Prevalence of intestinal parasitosis and associated risk factors among school children of Saptari district, Nepal: a cross-sectional study.

BACKGROUND: Intestinal parasitosis, caused by both helminths and protozoans, are among the most prevalent infections, especially in developing countries. Enteric parasites continue to be a major cause of parasitic diseases which is the most common among street and school going children with poor sanitation. This cross-sectional study was carried out to determine the prevalence and potential risk factors of intestinal parasitosis among school going children of two schools of Saptari district of southern Nepal. Stool samples were collected in a clean, dry, screw-capped, and wide-mouthed plastic container, fixed with 10% formal-saline solution, and transported to the laboratory for further microscopic analysis by following concentration technique. RESULTS: Out of the 285 stool samples analysed, 94 (33%) were positive for the parasitosis. Presence of intestinal parasites was marginally more in rural school (44.6%) than in urban (30%) (P < 0.05). Giardia lamblia was highly prevalent (15.4%) followed by Entamoeba histolytica-like (7.7%), E. coli (7%), Ascaris lumbricoides (1.8%), and Hymenolepis nana (1.08%), respectively. Children of the age group 11-15 years were highly affected (44.2%) compared to younger age groups. The findings of intestinal parasitosis in the study population were statistically significant with family income, hand-washing habit, type of drinking water, and availability of a toilet facility at home (P < 0.05). Over 85% of infection was associated with parasitosis that indicated mainly waterborne infection rather than soil-borne helminths. CONCLUSIONS: Poor hygiene measures and farming occupation are identified as major risk factors of parasitic infections, so sanitation especially focusing on safe drinking water along with multi intervention strategies must be emphasized in the Saptari district of Nepal to reduce the burden of parasitic diseases in school children.

Influence of maternal periodontal health as a risk factor for low-birth-weight infants in Terai population of Nepal.

BACKGROUND: Preterm low birth weight (PLBW) is a leading perinatal problem in developing countries. PLBW is considered as a leading cause of neonatal death in the 1st year of life, with problems in childhood and adulthood. Several studies have suggested a possible relationship between PLBW and periodontal status of the expectant mothers. The present study was conducted to determine the association between the maternal periodontitis and the low birth weight (BW) of the babies. MATERIALS AND METHODS: This study consisted of 200 primipara mothers ranging between 18 and 35 years old, with a mean age of 23.96 years. The mothers were categorized based on the weight of the infants as cases (BW <2500 g) and as controls (BW ≥2500 g). Age, mean weight, height, body mass index, and periodontal status of the mothers as well as weight of the babies were recorded. Periodontal parameters were assessed using the community periodontal index (CPI). The data were recorded, analyzed, and statistically compared using the Chi-square test (χ 2). RESULTS: BW of the babies was regressed against CPI. Periodontitis was significantly associated with decrease in BW of the babies (P < 0.0001). CONCLUSION: Our findings showed an association of maternal periodontal disease with PLBW that emphasizes to promote good oral hygiene of the expectant mothers during routine prenatal visits.

Seasonality in terai tree frog (Polypedates teraiensis): Role of light and temperature in regulation of seasonal breeding.

Seasonality is represented as an initiation-termination-reinitiation of any physiological processes. Photoperiod is the most predictable environmental cue which organism use to time their daily physiology and seasonal functions. In natural light environmental conditions, day and night components change in terms of duration, intensity and spectrum of light available. In many vertebrate species, daytime light intensity and spectrum of light play a critical role in gonadal recrudescence-regression cycle. In tropical conditions, many amphibian species show a clear relationship between reproduction and seasonal distribution of rainfall. In temperate conditions, reproduction is usually centered during spring and summer seasons when environmental conditions are favorable. Poikilotherms are highly sensitive to change in environmental temperature and their physiology and metabolic activities depend on environmental temperature. How environmental factors (light and temperature) influence, the reproduction of terai tree frog (Polypedates teraiensis) is not known. We hypothesized that light acts as a proximate factor but the temperature is the ultimate factor for reproduction of terai tree frog. Three experiments were performed. In experiment one, we studied the annual reproductive cycle under natural environmental conditions. Beginning from the month of March till October 2016, we procured adult frogs (male and female) in the middle of each month. Monthly observations were recorded for body weight and gonadal weight and GSI was calculated. We found the annual change in body mass, gonadal weight and GSI in both male and female with high gonadal weight and GSI values from March to June. These results suggest that terai tree frog is seasonal breeders, and their breeding corresponds with long days. In experiment two we addressed the effects of light duration, light intensity and light spectrum on gonadal growth regression cycle. We observed that long days promote gonadal growth regression cycle. However, after achieving critical daylength there is no additive effect of light duration. Further, light intensity and spectrum have limited role in gonadal growth regression cycle of this species. In experiment three we tested the role of temperature on body weight and testicular growth under stimulatory photoperiod (12 L:12D). Group one was exposed to high temperature (34 ±â€¯2 °C), while group two was exposed to low temperature (22 ±â€¯2 °C). We found that low temperature promotes testicular recrudescence under laboratory conditions. Altogether our study suggests both photoperiod and temperature are involved in the regulation of seasonal breeding in tree frog. Findings from the above study could be used for captive breeding of amphibians and may be helpful in amphibian conservation programmes.

Investigating aquifer contamination and groundwater quality in eastern Terai region of Nepal.

OBJECTIVE: This study aims at assessing the groundwater quality of the three districts of Eastern Terai region of Nepal viz. Morang, Jhapa, Sunsari using physicochemical characteristics and statistical approach so that possible contamination of water reservoir can be understood. pH, temperature, conductivity, turbidity, color, total dissolved solids, fluorides, ammonia, nitrates, chloride, total hardness, calcium hardness, calcium, magnesium, total alkalinity, iron, manganese, arsenic have to be analyzed to know the present status of groundwater quality. RESULTS: Results revealed that the value of analyzed parameters were within the acceptable limits for drinking water recommended by World Health Organization except for pH, turbidity, ammonia and iron. As per Nepal Drinking Water Quality Standards, fluoride and manganese too were not complying with the permissible limit. Electrical conductivity, total dissolved solids, chloride, total hardness, calcium hardness, manganese, and total alkalinity show good positive correlation with major water quality parameters. Calcium, magnesium, total hardness, calcium hardness and total alkalinity greatly influences total dissolved solids and electrical conductivity. ANOVA, Tukey, and clustering highlight the significance of three districts. Groundwater can be considered safe, but there is always a chance of contamination through chemical wastes in the heavily industrialized area of Morang and Sunsari Industrial corridor.

Exposure levels and health risk assessment of ambient BTX at urban and rural environments of a terai region of northern India.

Benzene, toluene and xylene (BTX) belong to an important group of aromatic volatile organic compounds (VOCs) that are usually emitted from various sources. BTX play a vital role in the tropospheric chemistry as well as pose health hazard to human beings. Thus, an investigation of ambient benzene, toluene and xylene (BTX) was conducted at urban and rural sites of Gorakhpur for a span of one year in order to ascertain the contamination levels. The sampling of BTX was performed by using a low-flow SKC Model 220 sampling pump equipped with activated coconut shell charcoal tubes with a flow rate of 250 ml/min for 20-24 h. The analysis was in accordance with NIOSH method 1501. The efficiency of pump was checked weekly using regulated rotameters with an accuracy of ±1%. The samples were extracted with CS2 with occasional agitation and analyzed by GC-FID. The total BTX concentration ranged from 3.4 µg m-3 to 45.4 µg m-3 with mean value 30.95 µg m-3 and median 24.8 µg m-3. The mean concentration of total BTX was maximum during winter (39.3 µg m-3), followed by summer (28.4 µg m-3) and monsoon season (25.1 µg m-3). The mean concentration of BTX at urban site (11.8 µg m-3) was higher than that at rural site (8.8 µg m-3). At both the sites, T/B and X/B ratios were highest in monsoon and lowest in winters. Toluene against benzene plot shows R2 value of 0.96 and 0.49 at urban and rural sites respectively. Higher R2 value at urban site clearly indicates similar sources of emission for benzene and toluene. At both the sites, the estimated integrated lifetime cancer risk (ILTCR) for benzene exceeded the threshold value of 1E-06 whereas the individual hazard quotients (HQ) for BTX did not exceed unity at any of the sites.

Public Health Interventions for Control of Malaria in the Population Living in the Terai Region of Nepal.

Infectious diseases are a major problem for developing countries. Controlling and eradicating these diseases have remained a challenge because of the multitudes of social and environmental factors involved. However, a multi-sectoral and collective effort in dealing with these diseases has been shown to result in positive outcomes. This paper looks at the current situation of Malaria in Nepal and a population that is at high risk. It explains the impact that social and environmental determinants have on this target population. This review then critically examines the various possible public health interventions that could potentially help in the control of malaria in this high risk population, drawing from evidences and experiences reported from other countries with suggestions for adapting these interventions to the Nepali environment.

Exposure profiles, seasonal variation and health risk assessment of BTEX in indoor air of homes at different microenvironments of a terai province of northern India.

BTEX are known for their ability to deteriorate human health. A monitoring study was conducted at Gorakhpur, for a span of one year. BTEX were sampled by drawing air through activated charcoal tubes, using a low flow SKC model 220 pump. Samples were extracted with CS2 followed by subjecting the aromatic fraction to GC-FID. The mean concentration of BTEX was highest at agricultural (54.3 µg m-3) followed by industrial (18.2 µg m-3), roadside (12.3 µg m-3) and residential site (6.1 µg m-3). Toluene levels were higher than benzene at all the sites except agricultural site, where benzene concentration exceeded toluene. Seasonal variation showed highest BTEX concentration during winters (32.56 µg m-3) followed by monsoon (19.90 µg m-3) and summers (14.44 µg m-3). At each site, BTEX levels increased with decrease in temperature. Benzene and toluene levels were plotted against indoor temperature, which revealed a significant linear correlation (p < 0.001) for each plot. BTEX concentrations were compared between different sites using Student's t and Mann Whitney U tests. Value of integrated lifetime cancer risk (ILTCR) was higher than 10-6 for benzene at all the sites, while for ethylbenzene, it was only higher at agricultural site. Cumulative hazard index (HI) was lower than 1.0 at all the sites.

Urinary Iodine Excretion among Nepalese School Children in Terai Region.

OBJECTIVES: To assess the current iodine status among school children in Terai region of Nepal. METHODS: A cross sectional study was conducted in 2012 among the school children aged 6-12y in three Terai districts (Siraha, Saptari and Jhapa) of eastern Nepal. A total of 1105 casual urine samples were collected from children of different schools of above districts. Urinary iodine excretion was estimated using ammonium persulphate digestion method. RESULTS: The median urinary iodine excretion in school children was 226.33µg/L (234.16µg/L, 229.25µg/L and 210.67µg/L in Siraha, Saptari and Jhapa districts respectively). About 12.7% (n = 140) children were found to be iodine deficient and 34.2% (n = 378) children had excessive iodine nutrition. CONCLUSIONS: There was good improvement in iodine nutrition among children in Terai region, with a large part of population showing excessive iodine nutrition.

Evidence of Recombinant Citrus tristeza virus Isolate Occurring in Acid Lime cv. Pant Lemon Orchard in Uttarakhand Terai Region of Northern Himalaya in India.

The present study for the first time describes biological and molecular characterization of Citrus tristeza virus (CTV) occurring in the Terai area of Uttarakhand State in Northern Himalaya region of India. Direct antigen coated-ELISA and reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) detected the CTV infection in Acid lime cv. Pant lemon (Citrus aurantifolia) orchards of Pantnagar with an estimated disease incidence of 16.6-20.5 %. To know the biological and genetic properties, an isolate, CTV Pant 4 was characterized. Isolate Pant 4 could be graft transmitted to Kinnow, Nagpur and Darjeeling mandarins, Mosambi sweet orange, Kagzi lime, Sweet lime, Sour orange but not to Rough lemon. The sequence analyses of the 5'ORF1a (3038 nucleotides) of LPro domain and 3'end (2058 nt) covering ORF7-ORF10 regions of the CTV genome revealed that Pant 4 was closely related to the previously reported Indian CTV isolate, Kpg3 from Northeastern Himalaya region with 97 and 98 % sequence identity, respectively. Whereas, it differed from the previously reported CTV isolate B165 from Southern India with 79 and 92 % identity, respectively for 5'ORF1a and 3' end regions. Recombination and SplitsTree decomposition analyses indicated that CTV isolate Pant 4 was a recombinant isolate originating from Kpg3 as a major and B165 as a minor donor.

Serum mineral levels among Nepalese living in the southern agricultural Terai region.

The physical status and serum mineral concentrations for people aged 10 to 68 years living in an agricultural southern region of Nepal were determined. Systolic (SBP) and diastolic blood pressure (DBP) for both sexes in the 10-14 year age group were low (p<0.05. vs the other age groups) and those for the over 50-year-olds tended to be higher than the other age groups. The mean values of total proteins (TP) (8.6 ± 0.5 g/dl for males and 8.7 ± 0.6 g/dl for females) were high due to an increase of globulin (3.9 ± 0.4 g/dl for males and 4.1 ± 0.5 g/dl for females). More than three-fourths of the subjects of both sexes showed calcium (Ca) levels of 9.0-11.2 mg/dl and about 65% of them showed potassium (K) levels of 4.8-5.4 mEq/1. A significant positive correlation between DBP and serum K was observed (p<0.05). Serum inorganic phosphorus (IP) correlated with age (p<0.001) and body mass index (BMI) (p<0.001). The serum Ca levels correlated with TP (r=0.31, p<0.001), albumin (Alb) (r=0.50, p<0.001), IP (r=0.31, p<0.001), K (r=0.32, p<0.001) and chlorine (Cl)(r=-0.37, p<0.001). Cl was associated with TP (r=-0.21, p<0.05), Alb (r=-0.36, p<0.001) and IP (r=-0.21, p<0.05). These results suggested that Ca intake for the subjects seemed to be insufficient although their serum Ca level was within normal.