RESUMO
The nicotinic acetylcholine receptor has served, since its biochemical identification in the 1970s, as a model of an allosteric ligand-gated ion channel mediating signal transition at the synapse. In recent years, the application of X-ray crystallography and high-resolution cryo-electron microscopy, together with molecular dynamic simulations of nicotinic receptors and homologs, have opened a new era in the understanding of channel gating by the neurotransmitter. They reveal, at atomic resolution, the diversity and flexibility of the multiple ligand-binding sites, including recently discovered allosteric modulatory sites distinct from the neurotransmitter orthosteric site, and the conformational dynamics of the activation process as a molecular switch linking these multiple sites. The model emerging from these studies paves the way for a new pharmacology based, first, upon the occurrence of an original mode of indirect allosteric modulation, distinct from a steric competition for a single and rigid binding site, and second, the design of drugs that specifically interact with privileged conformations of the receptor such as agonists, antagonists, and desensitizers. Research on nicotinic receptors is still at the forefront of understanding the mode of action of drugs on the nervous system.
Assuntos
Sítio Alostérico , Microscopia Crioeletrônica , Simulação de Dinâmica Molecular , Receptores Nicotínicos , Transdução de Sinais , Receptores Nicotínicos/metabolismo , Receptores Nicotínicos/química , Receptores Nicotínicos/genética , Regulação Alostérica , Humanos , Animais , Cristalografia por Raios X , Sítios de Ligação , Conformação Proteica , Ligantes , Modelos Moleculares , Multimerização Proteica , Agonistas Nicotínicos/química , Agonistas Nicotínicos/farmacologia , Agonistas Nicotínicos/metabolismoRESUMO
Dopamine receptors, including D1- and D2-like receptors, are important therapeutic targets in a variety of neurological syndromes, as well as cardiovascular and kidney diseases. Here, we present five cryoelectron microscopy (cryo-EM) structures of the dopamine D1 receptor (DRD1) coupled to Gs heterotrimer in complex with three catechol-based agonists, a non-catechol agonist, and a positive allosteric modulator for endogenous dopamine. These structures revealed that a polar interaction network is essential for catecholamine-like agonist recognition, whereas specific motifs in the extended binding pocket were responsible for discriminating D1- from D2-like receptors. Moreover, allosteric binding at a distinct inner surface pocket improved the activity of DRD1 by stabilizing endogenous dopamine interaction at the orthosteric site. DRD1-Gs interface revealed key features that serve as determinants for G protein coupling. Together, our study provides a structural understanding of the ligand recognition, allosteric regulation, and G protein coupling mechanisms of DRD1.
Assuntos
Subunidades alfa Gs de Proteínas de Ligação ao GTP/metabolismo , Receptores de Dopamina D1/metabolismo , Transdução de Sinais , Regulação Alostérica , Sítio Alostérico , Motivos de Aminoácidos , Sequência de Aminoácidos , Sítios de Ligação , Catecóis/metabolismo , Microscopia Crioeletrônica , Fenoldopam/química , Fenoldopam/farmacologia , Subunidades alfa Gs de Proteínas de Ligação ao GTP/química , Subunidades alfa Gs de Proteínas de Ligação ao GTP/ultraestrutura , Células HEK293 , Humanos , Ligantes , Modelos Moleculares , Multimerização Proteica , Receptores de Dopamina D1/química , Receptores de Dopamina D1/ultraestrutura , Receptores de Dopamina D2/metabolismo , Homologia Estrutural de ProteínaRESUMO
Protein ubiquitination is one of the most powerful posttranslational modifications of proteins, as it regulates a plethora of cellular processes in distinct manners. Simple monoubiquitination events coexist with more complex forms of polyubiquitination, the latter featuring many different chain architectures. Ubiquitin can be subjected to further posttranslational modifications (e.g., phosphorylation and acetylation) and can also be part of mixed polymers with ubiquitin-like modifiers such as SUMO (small ubiquitin-related modifier) or NEDD8 (neural precursor cell expressed, developmentally downregulated 8). Together, cellular ubiquitination events form a sophisticated and versatile ubiquitin code. Deubiquitinases (DUBs) reverse ubiquitin signals with equally high sophistication. In this review, we conceptualize the many layers of specificity that DUBs encompass to control the ubiquitin code and discuss examples in which DUB specificity has been understood at the molecular level. We further discuss the many mechanisms of DUB regulation with a focus on those that modulate catalytic activity. Our review provides a framework to tackle lingering questions in DUB biology.
Assuntos
Enzimas Desubiquitinantes/metabolismo , Células Eucarióticas/metabolismo , Processamento de Proteína Pós-Traducional , Ubiquitina-Proteína Ligases/metabolismo , Ubiquitina/metabolismo , Ubiquitinas/metabolismo , Acetilação , Regulação Alostérica , Enzimas Desubiquitinantes/química , Enzimas Desubiquitinantes/genética , Humanos , Modelos Moleculares , Proteína NEDD8 , Fosforilação , Ligação Proteica , Conformação Proteica , Proteólise , Especificidade por Substrato , Sumoilação , Ubiquitina/genética , Ubiquitina-Proteína Ligases/genética , Ubiquitinação , Ubiquitinas/genéticaRESUMO
When unfolded proteins accumulate in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER), the unfolded protein response (UPR) increases ER-protein-folding capacity to restore protein-folding homeostasis. Unfolded proteins activate UPR signaling across the ER membrane to the nucleus by promoting oligomerization of IRE1, a conserved transmembrane ER stress receptor. However, the coupling of ER stress to IRE1 oligomerization and activation has remained obscure. Here, we report that the ER luminal co-chaperone ERdj4/DNAJB9 is a selective IRE1 repressor that promotes a complex between the luminal Hsp70 BiP and the luminal stress-sensing domain of IRE1α (IRE1LD). In vitro, ERdj4 is required for complex formation between BiP and IRE1LD. ERdj4 associates with IRE1LD and recruits BiP through the stimulation of ATP hydrolysis, forcibly disrupting IRE1 dimers. Unfolded proteins compete for BiP and restore IRE1LD to its default, dimeric, and active state. These observations establish BiP and its J domain co-chaperones as key regulators of the UPR.
Assuntos
Endorribonucleases/metabolismo , Proteínas de Choque Térmico HSP40/metabolismo , Proteínas de Choque Térmico/metabolismo , Proteínas de Membrana/metabolismo , Chaperonas Moleculares/metabolismo , Proteínas Serina-Treonina Quinases/metabolismo , Resposta a Proteínas não Dobradas , Animais , Cricetinae , Retículo Endoplasmático/metabolismo , Chaperona BiP do Retículo Endoplasmático , Humanos , Dobramento de ProteínaRESUMO
Pyruvate carboxylase (PC) catalyzes the two-step carboxylation of pyruvate to produce oxaloacetate, playing a key role in the maintenance of metabolic homeostasis in cells. Given its involvement in multiple diseases, PC has been regarded as a potential therapeutic target for obesity, diabetes, and cancer. Albeit acetyl-CoA has been recognized as the allosteric regulator of PC for over 60 years, the underlying mechanism of how acetyl-CoA induces PC activation remains enigmatic. Herein, by using time-resolved cryo-electron microscopy, we have captured the snapshots of PC transitional states during its catalytic cycle. These structures and the biochemical studies reveal that acetyl-CoA stabilizes PC in a catalytically competent conformation, which triggers a cascade of events, including ATP hydrolysis and the long-distance communication between the two reactive centers. These findings provide an integrated picture for PC catalysis and unveil the unique allosteric mechanism of acetyl-CoA in an essential biochemical reaction in all kingdoms of life.
Assuntos
Acetil-CoA Carboxilase , Piruvato Carboxilase , Humanos , Piruvato Carboxilase/genética , Piruvato Carboxilase/metabolismo , Acetilcoenzima A/metabolismo , Regulação Alostérica , Microscopia Crioeletrônica , Conformação Molecular , Acetil-CoA Carboxilase/metabolismoRESUMO
Bacterial stress-signaling alarmones are important components of a protective network against diverse stresses such as nutrient starvation and antibiotic assault. pppGpp and ppGpp, collectively (p)ppGpp, have well-documented regulatory roles in gene expression and protein translation. Recent work has highlighted another key function of (p)ppGpp: inducing rapid and coordinated changes in cellular metabolism by regulating enzymatic activities, especially those involved in purine nucleotide synthesis. Failure of metabolic regulation by (p)ppGpp results in the loss of coordination between metabolic and macromolecular processes, leading to cellular toxicity. In this review, we document how (p)ppGpp and newly characterized nucleotides pGpp and (p)ppApp directly regulate these enzymatic targets for metabolic remodeling. We examine targets' common determinants for alarmone interaction as well as their evolutionary diversification. We highlight classical and emerging themes in nucleotide signaling, including oligomerization and allostery along with metabolic interconversion and crosstalk, illustrating how they allow optimized bacterial adaptation to their environmental niches.
Assuntos
Guanosina Pentafosfato , Nucleotídeos , Bactérias/genética , Bactérias/metabolismo , Proteínas de Bactérias/genética , Proteínas de Bactérias/metabolismo , Regulação Bacteriana da Expressão Gênica , Guanosina Pentafosfato/genética , Guanosina Pentafosfato/metabolismo , Nucleotídeos/metabolismoRESUMO
Heat-shock proteins of 70 kDa (Hsp70s) are vital for all life and are notably important in protein folding. Hsp70s use ATP binding and hydrolysis at a nucleotide-binding domain (NBD) to control the binding and release of client polypeptides at a substrate-binding domain (SBD); however, the mechanistic basis for this allostery has been elusive. Here, we first characterize biochemical properties of selected domain-interface mutants in bacterial Hsp70 DnaK. We then develop a theoretical model for allosteric equilibria among Hsp70 conformational states to explain the observations: a restraining state, Hsp70R-ATP, restricts ATP hydrolysis and binds peptides poorly, whereas a stimulating state, Hsp70S-ATP, hydrolyzes ATP rapidly and has high intrinsic substrate affinity but rapid binding kinetics. We support this model for allosteric regulation with DnaK structures obtained in the postulated stimulating state S with biochemical tests of the S-state interface and with improved peptide-binding-site definition in an R-state structure.
Assuntos
Proteínas de Escherichia coli/metabolismo , Proteínas de Choque Térmico HSP70/metabolismo , Adenosina Trifosfatases/genética , Adenosina Trifosfatases/metabolismo , Trifosfato de Adenosina/metabolismo , Regulação Alostérica , Sítios de Ligação , Proteínas de Escherichia coli/genética , Proteínas de Choque Térmico HSP70/genética , Hidrólise , Cinética , Modelos Moleculares , Mutação , Ligação Proteica , Conformação Proteica , Proteínas de Saccharomyces cerevisiae/genética , Proteínas de Saccharomyces cerevisiae/metabolismo , Relação Estrutura-AtividadeRESUMO
Hemostasis relies on a reaction network of serine proteases and their cofactors to form a blood clot. Coagulation factor IXa (protease) plays an essential role in hemostasis as evident from the bleeding disease associated with its absence. RNA aptamers specifically targeting individual coagulation factors have potential as anticoagulants and as probes of the relationship between structure and function. Here, we report X-ray structures of human factor IXa without a ligand bound to the active site either in the apo-form or in complex with an inhibitory aptamer specific for factor IXa. The aptamer binds to an exosite in the catalytic domain and allosterically distorts the active site. Our studies reveal a conformational ensemble of IXa states, wherein large movements of Trp215 near the active site drive functional transitions between the closed (aptamer-bound), latent (apo), and open (substrate-bound) states. The latent state of the apo-enzyme may bear on the uniquely poor catalytic activity of IXa compared to other coagulation proteases. The exosite, to which the aptamer binds, has been implicated in binding VIIIa and heparin, both of which regulate IXa function. Our findings reveal the importance of exosite-driven allosteric modulation of IXa function and new strategies to rebalance hemostasis for therapeutic gain.
Assuntos
Aptâmeros de Nucleotídeos , Fator IXa , Aptâmeros de Nucleotídeos/química , Aptâmeros de Nucleotídeos/metabolismo , Fator IXa/metabolismo , Fator IXa/química , Fator IXa/antagonistas & inibidores , Humanos , Regulação Alostérica , Domínio Catalítico , Cristalografia por Raios X , Modelos Moleculares , Ligação Proteica , Anticoagulantes/química , Anticoagulantes/metabolismo , Anticoagulantes/farmacologiaRESUMO
Mutation in leucine-rich repeat (LRR) kinase 2 (LRRK2) is a common cause of Parkinson's disease (PD). Aberrant LRRK2 kinase activity is associated with disease pathogenesis and thus it is an attractive drug target for combating PD. Intense efforts in the past nearly two decades have focused on the development of small-molecule inhibitors of the kinase domain of LRRK2 and have identified potent kinase inhibitors. However, most LRRK2 kinase inhibitors have shown adverse effects; therefore, alternative-mechanism-based strategies are desperately needed. In this review, we discuss the new insights gleaned from recent cryoelectron microscope (cryo-EM) structures of LRRK2 towards understanding the mechanisms of actions of LRRK2 and explore the potential new therapeutic avenues.
Assuntos
Doença de Parkinson , Humanos , Serina-Treonina Proteína Quinase-2 com Repetições Ricas em Leucina/genética , Serina-Treonina Proteína Quinase-2 com Repetições Ricas em Leucina/química , Serina-Treonina Proteína Quinase-2 com Repetições Ricas em Leucina/metabolismo , Doença de Parkinson/tratamento farmacológico , Doença de Parkinson/genética , Doença de Parkinson/metabolismo , Proteínas Serina-Treonina Quinases , MutaçãoRESUMO
Maintaining proper metabolite levels in a complex metabolic network is crucial for maintaining a high flux through the network. In this paper, we discuss major regulatory mechanisms over the Calvin Benson Cycle (CBC) with regard to their roles in conferring homeostasis of metabolite levels in CBC. These include: 1) Redox regulation of enzymes in the CBC on one hand ensures that metabolite levels stay above certain lower bounds under low light while on the other hand increases the flux through the CBC under high light. 2) Metabolite regulations, especially allosteric regulations of major regulatory enzymes, ensure the rapid up-regulation of fluxes to ensure sufficient amount of triose phosphate is available for end product synthesis and concurrently avoid phosphate limitation. 3) A balanced activities of enzymes in the CBC help maintain balanced flux through CBC; some innate product feedback mechanisms, in particular the ADP feedback regulation of GAPDH and F6P feedback regulation of FBPase, exist in CBC to achieve such a balanced enzyme activities and hence flux distribution in the CBC for greater photosynthetic efficiency. Transcriptional regulation and natural variations of enzymes controlling CBC metabolite homeostasis should be further explored to maximize the potential of engineering CBC for greater efficiency.
Assuntos
Fosfatos , Fotossíntese , Fotossíntese/fisiologiaRESUMO
GPCRs (G protein-coupled receptors), also known as 7 transmembrane domain receptors, are the largest receptor family in the human genome, with ≈800 members. GPCRs regulate nearly every aspect of human physiology and disease, thus serving as important drug targets in cardiovascular disease. Sharing a conserved structure comprised of 7 transmembrane α-helices, GPCRs couple to heterotrimeric G-proteins, GPCR kinases, and ß-arrestins, promoting downstream signaling through second messengers and other intracellular signaling pathways. GPCR drug development has led to important cardiovascular therapies, such as antagonists of ß-adrenergic and angiotensin II receptors for heart failure and hypertension, and agonists of the glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor for reducing adverse cardiovascular events and other emerging indications. There continues to be a major interest in GPCR drug development in cardiovascular and cardiometabolic disease, driven by advances in GPCR mechanistic studies and structure-based drug design. This review recounts the rich history of GPCR research, including the current state of clinically used GPCR drugs, and highlights newly discovered aspects of GPCR biology and promising directions for future investigation. As additional mechanisms for regulating GPCR signaling are uncovered, new strategies for targeting these ubiquitous receptors hold tremendous promise for the field of cardiovascular medicine.
Assuntos
Receptores Acoplados a Proteínas G , Humanos , Receptores Acoplados a Proteínas G/metabolismo , Animais , Doenças Cardiovasculares/metabolismo , Doenças Cardiovasculares/tratamento farmacológico , Transdução de Sinais , Descoberta de Drogas , História do Século XXI , História do Século XXRESUMO
Historically, ryanodine receptors (RyRs) have presented unique challenges for high-resolution structural determination despite long-standing interest in their role in excitation-contraction coupling. Owing to their large size (nearly 2.2 MDa), high-resolution structures remained elusive until the advent of cryogenic electron microscopy (cryo-EM) techniques. In recent years, structures for both RyR1 and RyR2 have been solved at near-atomic resolution. Furthermore, recent reports have delved into their more complex structural associations with key modulators - proteins such as the dihydropyridine receptor (DHPR), FKBP12/12.6, and calmodulin (CaM), as well as ions and small molecules including Ca2+, ATP, caffeine, and PCB95. This review addresses the modulation of RyR1 and RyR2, in addition to the impact of such discoveries on intracellular Ca2+ dynamics and biophysical properties.
Assuntos
Cálcio , Canal de Liberação de Cálcio do Receptor de Rianodina , Cálcio/metabolismo , Calmodulina/metabolismo , Microscopia Crioeletrônica , Microscopia EletrônicaRESUMO
"Allosteric" was first introduced to mean the other site (i.e., a site distinct from the active or orthosteric site), an adjective for "regulation" to imply a regulatory outcome resulting from ligand binding at another site. That original idea outlines a system with two ligand-binding events at two distinct locations on a macromolecule (originally a protein system), which defines a four-state energy cycle. An allosteric energy cycle provides a quantifiable allosteric coupling constant and focuses our attention on the unique properties of the four equilibrated protein complexes that constitute the energy cycle. Because many observed phenomena have been referenced as "allosteric regulation" in the literature, the goal of this work is to use literature examples to explore which systems are and are not consistent with the two-ligand thermodynamic energy cycle-based definition of allosteric regulation. We emphasize the need for consistent language so comparisons can be made among the ever-increasing number of allosteric systems. Building on the mutually exclusive natures of an energy cycle definition of allosteric regulation versus classic two-state models, we conclude our discussion by outlining how the often-proposed Rube-Goldberg-like mechanisms are likely inconsistent with an energy cycle definition of allosteric regulation.
Assuntos
Regulação Alostérica , Sítio Alostérico , Ligantes , Termodinâmica , Humanos , Animais , Biocatálise , Dobramento de Proteína , Proteínas/metabolismoRESUMO
The heterohexameric ATPases associated with diverse cellular activities (AAA)-ATPase Pex1/Pex6 is essential for the formation and maintenance of peroxisomes. Pex1/Pex6, similar to other AAA-ATPases, uses the energy from ATP hydrolysis to mechanically thread substrate proteins through its central pore, thereby unfolding them. In related AAA-ATPase motors, substrates are recruited through binding to the motor's N-terminal domains or N terminally bound cofactors. Here, we use structural and biochemical techniques to characterize the function of the N1 domain in Pex6 from budding yeast, Saccharomyces cerevisiae. We found that although Pex1/ΔN1-Pex6 is an active ATPase in vitro, it does not support Pex1/Pex6 function at the peroxisome in vivo. An X-ray crystal structure of the isolated Pex6 N1 domain shows that the Pex6 N1 domain shares the same fold as the N-terminal domains of PEX1, CDC48, and NSF, despite poor sequence conservation. Integrating this structure with a cryo-EM reconstruction of Pex1/Pex6, AlphaFold2 predictions, and biochemical assays shows that Pex6 N1 mediates binding to both the peroxisomal membrane tether Pex15 and an extended loop from the D2 ATPase domain of Pex1 that influences Pex1/Pex6 heterohexamer stability. Given the direct interactions with both Pex15 and the D2 ATPase domains, the Pex6 N1 domain is poised to coordinate binding of cofactors and substrates with Pex1/Pex6 ATPase activity.
Assuntos
ATPases Associadas a Diversas Atividades Celulares , Proteínas de Membrana , Fosfoproteínas , Proteínas de Saccharomyces cerevisiae , Adenosina Trifosfatases/metabolismo , ATPases Associadas a Diversas Atividades Celulares/metabolismo , Membranas Intracelulares/metabolismo , Proteínas de Membrana/metabolismo , Peroxissomos/metabolismo , Saccharomyces cerevisiae/genética , Saccharomyces cerevisiae/metabolismo , Proteínas de Saccharomyces cerevisiae/metabolismo , Fosfoproteínas/metabolismoRESUMO
Phospholamban (PLB) is a transmembrane micropeptide that regulates the sarcoplasmic reticulum Ca2+-ATPase (SERCA) in cardiac muscle, but the physical mechanism of this regulation remains poorly understood. PLB reduces the Ca2+ sensitivity of active SERCA, increasing the Ca2+ concentration required for pump cycling. However, PLB does not decrease Ca2+ binding to SERCA when ATP is absent, suggesting PLB does not inhibit SERCA Ca2+ affinity. The prevailing explanation for these seemingly conflicting results is that PLB slows transitions in the SERCA enzymatic cycle associated with Ca2+ binding, altering transport Ca2+ dependence without actually affecting the equilibrium binding affinity of the Ca2+-coordinating sites. Here, we consider another hypothesis, that measurements of Ca2+ binding in the absence of ATP overlook important allosteric effects of nucleotide binding that increase SERCA Ca2+ binding affinity. We speculated that PLB inhibits SERCA by reversing this allostery. To test this, we used a fluorescent SERCA biosensor to quantify the Ca2+ affinity of non-cycling SERCA in the presence and absence of a non-hydrolyzable ATP-analog, AMPPCP. Nucleotide activation increased SERCA Ca2+ affinity, and this effect was reversed by co-expression of PLB. Interestingly, PLB had no effect on Ca2+ affinity in the absence of nucleotide. These results reconcile the previous conflicting observations from ATPase assays versus Ca2+ binding assays. Moreover, structural analysis of SERCA revealed a novel allosteric pathway connecting the ATP- and Ca2+-binding sites. We propose this pathway is disrupted by PLB binding. Thus, PLB reduces the equilibrium Ca2+ affinity of SERCA by interrupting allosteric activation of the pump by ATP.
Assuntos
Proteínas de Ligação ao Cálcio , Cálcio , ATPases Transportadoras de Cálcio do Retículo Sarcoplasmático , Animais , Humanos , Trifosfato de Adenosina/metabolismo , Regulação Alostérica , Cálcio/metabolismo , Proteínas de Ligação ao Cálcio/metabolismo , Proteínas de Ligação ao Cálcio/química , Miocárdio/metabolismo , ATPases Transportadoras de Cálcio do Retículo Sarcoplasmático/metabolismo , ATPases Transportadoras de Cálcio do Retículo Sarcoplasmático/química , Cães , Células HEK293 , Modelos Moleculares , Estrutura Terciária de ProteínaRESUMO
Protein tyrosine phosphatase nonreceptor type 22 (PTPN22) is encoded by a major autoimmunity gene and is a known inhibitor of T cell receptor (TCR) signaling and drug target for cancer immunotherapy. However, little is known about PTPN22 posttranslational regulation. Here, we characterize a phosphorylation site at Ser325 situated C terminal to the catalytic domain of PTPN22 and its roles in altering protein function. In human T cells, Ser325 is phosphorylated by glycogen synthase kinase-3 (GSK3) following TCR stimulation, which promotes its TCR-inhibitory activity. Signaling through the major TCR-dependent pathway under PTPN22 control was enhanced by CRISPR/Cas9-mediated suppression of Ser325 phosphorylation and inhibited by mimicking it via glutamic acid substitution. Global phospho-mass spectrometry showed Ser325 phosphorylation state alters downstream transcriptional activity through enrichment of Swi3p, Rsc8p, and Moira domain binding proteins, and next-generation sequencing revealed it differentially regulates the expression of chemokines and T cell activation pathways. Moreover, in vitro kinetic data suggest the modulation of activity depends on a cellular context. Finally, we begin to address the structural and mechanistic basis for the influence of Ser325 phosphorylation on the protein's properties by deuterium exchange mass spectrometry and NMR spectroscopy. In conclusion, this study explores the function of a novel phosphorylation site of PTPN22 that is involved in complex regulation of TCR signaling and provides details that might inform the future development of allosteric modulators of PTPN22.
Assuntos
Proteína Tirosina Fosfatase não Receptora Tipo 22 , Receptores de Antígenos de Linfócitos T , Transdução de Sinais , Humanos , Fosforilação , Receptores de Antígenos de Linfócitos T/metabolismo , Receptores de Antígenos de Linfócitos T/imunologia , Proteína Tirosina Fosfatase não Receptora Tipo 22/genética , Proteína Tirosina Fosfatase não Receptora Tipo 22/metabolismo , Mutação com Ganho de Função , Linfócitos T/metabolismo , Linfócitos T/imunologia , Células Jurkat , Células HEK293RESUMO
The PKC-related kinases (PRKs, also termed PKNs) are important in cell migration, cancer, hepatitis C infection, and nutrient sensing. They belong to a group of protein kinases called AGC kinases that share common features like a C-terminal extension to the catalytic domain comprising a hydrophobic motif. PRKs are regulated by N-terminal domains, a pseudosubstrate sequence, Rho-binding domains, and a C2 domain involved in inhibition and dimerization, while Rho and lipids are activators. We investigated the allosteric regulation of PRK2 and its interaction with its upstream kinase PDK1 using a chemical biology approach. We confirmed the phosphoinositide-dependent protein kinase 1 (PDK1)-interacting fragment (PIF)-mediated docking interaction of PRK2 with PDK1 and showed that this interaction can be modulated allosterically. We showed that the polypeptide PIFtide and a small compound binding to the PIF-pocket of PRK2 were allosteric activators, by displacing the pseudosubstrate PKL region from the active site. In addition, a small compound binding to the PIF-pocket allosterically inhibited the catalytic activity of PRK2. Together, we confirmed the docking interaction and allostery between PRK2 and PDK1 and described an allosteric communication between the PIF-pocket and the active site of PRK2, both modulating the conformation of the ATP-binding site and the pseudosubstrate PKL-binding site. Our study highlights the allosteric modulation of the activity and the conformation of PRK2 in addition to the existence of at least two different complexes between PRK2 and its upstream kinase PDK1. Finally, the study highlights the potential for developing allosteric drugs to modulate PRK2 kinase conformations and catalytic activity.
RESUMO
Flavin-dependent halogenases are central enzymes in the production of halogenated secondary metabolites in various organisms and they constitute highly promising biocatalysts for regioselective halogenation. The mechanism of these monooxygenases includes formation of hypohalous acid from a reaction of fully reduced flavin with oxygen and halide. The hypohalous acid then diffuses via a tunnel to the substrate-binding site for halogenation of tryptophan and other substrates. Oxidized flavin needs to be reduced for regeneration of the enzyme, which can be performed in vitro by a photoreduction with blue light. Here, we employed this photoreduction to study characteristic structural changes associated with the transition from oxidized to fully reduced flavin in PyrH from Streptomyces rugosporus as a model for tryptophan-5-halogenases. The effect of the presence of bromide and chloride or the absence of any halides on the UV-vis spectrum of the enzyme demonstrated a halide-dependent structure of the flavin-binding pocket. Light-induced FTIR difference spectroscopy was applied and the signals assigned by selective isotope labeling of the protein moiety. The identified structural changes in α-helix and ß-sheet elements were strongly dependent on the presence of bromide, chloride, the substrate tryptophan, and the product 5-chloro-tryptophan, respectively. We identified a clear allosteric coupling in solution at ambient conditions between cofactor-binding site and substrate-binding site that is active in both directions, despite their separation by a tunnel. We suggest that this coupling constitutes a fine-tuned mechanism for the promotion of the enzymatic reaction of flavin-dependent halogenases in dependence of halide and substrate availability.
Assuntos
Proteínas de Bactérias , Flavinas , Oxirredutases , Streptomyces , Oxirredutases/metabolismo , Oxirredutases/química , Flavinas/metabolismo , Flavinas/química , Proteínas de Bactérias/metabolismo , Proteínas de Bactérias/química , Proteínas de Bactérias/genética , Streptomyces/enzimologia , Oxirredução , Espectroscopia de Infravermelho com Transformada de Fourier/métodos , Halogenação , Brometos/química , Brometos/metabolismo , Triptofano/metabolismo , Triptofano/química , Sítios de Ligação , Cloretos/metabolismo , Cloretos/químicaRESUMO
Human ALC1 is an oncogene-encoded chromatin-remodeling enzyme required for DNA repair that possesses a poly(ADP-ribose) (PAR)-binding macro domain. Its engagement with PARylated PARP1 activates ALC1 at sites of DNA damage, but the underlying mechanism remains unclear. Here, we establish a dual role for the macro domain in autoinhibition of ALC1 ATPase activity and coupling to nucleosome mobilization. In the absence of DNA damage, an inactive conformation of the ATPase is maintained by juxtaposition of the macro domain against predominantly the C-terminal ATPase lobe through conserved electrostatic interactions. Mutations within this interface displace the macro domain, constitutively activate the ALC1 ATPase independent of PARylated PARP1, and alter the dynamics of ALC1 recruitment at DNA damage sites. Upon DNA damage, binding of PARylated PARP1 by the macro domain induces a conformational change that relieves autoinhibitory interactions with the ATPase motor, which selectively activates ALC1 remodeling upon recruitment to sites of DNA damage.
Assuntos
Montagem e Desmontagem da Cromatina , Dano ao DNA , DNA Helicases/metabolismo , Reparo do DNA , Proteínas de Ligação a DNA/metabolismo , Nucleossomos/enzimologia , Domínio Catalítico , Linhagem Celular Tumoral , DNA Helicases/química , DNA Helicases/genética , Proteínas de Ligação a DNA/química , Proteínas de Ligação a DNA/genética , Ativação Enzimática , Humanos , Microscopia Eletrônica , Simulação de Dinâmica Molecular , Mutação , Nucleossomos/química , Poli(ADP-Ribose) Polimerase-1/química , Poli(ADP-Ribose) Polimerase-1/metabolismo , Poli ADP Ribosilação , Ligação Proteica , Domínios e Motivos de Interação entre Proteínas , Transporte Proteico , Espalhamento a Baixo Ângulo , Eletricidade Estática , Relação Estrutura-Atividade , Fatores de Tempo , Difração de Raios XRESUMO
Catalytic poly(ADP-ribose) production by PARP1 is allosterically activated through interaction with DNA breaks, and PARP inhibitor compounds have the potential to influence PARP1 allostery in addition to preventing catalytic activity. Using the benzimidazole-4-carboxamide pharmacophore present in the first generation PARP1 inhibitor veliparib, a series of 11 derivatives was designed, synthesized, and evaluated as allosteric PARP1 inhibitors, with the premise that bulky substituents would engage the regulatory helical domain (HD) and thereby promote PARP1 retention on DNA breaks. We found that core scaffold modifications could indeed increase PARP1 affinity for DNA; however, the bulk of the modification alone was insufficient to trigger PARP1 allosteric retention on DNA breaks. Rather, compounds eliciting PARP1 retention on DNA breaks were found to be rigidly held in a position that interferes with a specific region of the HD domain, a region that is not targeted by current clinical PARP inhibitors. Collectively, these compounds highlight a unique way to trigger PARP1 retention on DNA breaks and open a path to unveil the pharmacological benefits of such inhibitors with novel properties.