The electrochemistry of stable sulfur isotopes versus lithium.

Sulfur in nature consists of two abundant stable isotopes, with two more neutrons in the heavy one (34S) than in the light one (32S). The two isotopes show similar physicochemical properties and are usually considered an integral system for chemical research in various fields. In this work, a model study based on a Li-S battery was performed to reveal the variation between the electrochemical properties of the two S isotopes. Provided with the same octatomic ring structure, the cyclo-34S8 molecules form stronger S-S bonds than cyclo-32S8 and are more prone to react with Li. The soluble Li polysulfides generated by the Li-34S conversion reaction show a stronger cation-solvent interaction yet a weaker cation-anion interaction than the 32S-based counterparts, which facilitates quick solvation of polysulfides yet hinders their migration from the cathode to the anode. Consequently, the Li-34S cell shows improved cathode reaction kinetics at the solid-liquid interface and inhibited shuttle of polysulfides through the electrolyte so that it demonstrates better cycling performance than the Li-32S cell. Based on the varied shuttle kinetics of the isotopic-S-based polysulfides, an electrochemical separation method for 34S/32S isotope is proposed, which enables a notably higher separation factor than the conventional separation methods via chemical exchange or distillation and brings opportunities to low-cost manufacture, utilization, and research of heavy chalcogen isotopes.

Molecular-Level Anion and Li+ Co-Regulation by Amphoteric Polymer Separator for High-Rate Stable Lithium Metal Anode.

Regulating ion transport is a prevailing strategy to suppress lithium dendrite growth, in which the distribution of ion regulatory sites plays an important role. Here a hyperbranched polyamidoamine (HBPA) grafted polyethylene (PE) composite separator (HBPA-g-PE) is reported. The densely and uniformly distributed positive -NH2 and negative -CHNO- groups efficiently restrict the anion migration and promote Li+ transport at the surface of the lithium metal anode. The obtained Li foil symmetric cell delivers a stable cycle performance with a low-voltage hysteresis of 130 mV for over 1500 h (3000 cycles) at an ultrahigh current density of 20 mA cm-2 and a practical areal capacity of 5 mAh cm-2. Moreover, HBPA-g-PE separator enables a practical lithium-sulfur battery to achieve over 200-cycle stable performance with initial and retained capacity of 700 and 455 mAh g-1, at a high sulfur loading of 4 mg cm-2 and a low electrolyte content/sulfur loading ratio of 8 µL mg-1.

In Situ Polymerization Bi-Functional Gel Polymer Electrolyte for High Performance Quasi-Solid-State Lithium-Sulfur Batteries.

Lithium-sulfur (Li-S) batteries are expected to be the next-generation energy storage system due to the ultrahigh theoretical energy density and low cost. However, the notorious shuttle effect of higher-order polysulfides and the uncontrollable lithium dendrite growth are the two biggest challenges for commercially viable Li-S batteries. Herein, these two main challenges are solved by in situ polymerization of bi-functional gel polymer electrolyte (GPE). The initiator (SiCl4) not only drives the polymerization of 1,3-dioxolane (DOL) but also induces the construction of a hybrid solid electrolyte interphase (SEI) with inorganic-rich compositions on the Li anode. In addition, diatomaceous earth (DE) is added and anchored in the GPE to obtain PDOL-SiCl4-DE electrolyte through in situ polymerization. Combined with density functional theory (DFT) calculations, the hybrid SEI provides abundant adsorption sites for the deposition of Li+, inhibiting the growth of lithium dendrites. Meanwhile, the shuttle effect is greatly alleviated due to the strong adsorption capacity of DE toward lithium polysulfides. Therefore, the Li/Li symmetric cell and Li-S full cell assembled with PDOL-SiCl4-DE exhibit excellent cycling stability. This study offers a valuable reference for the development of high performance and safe Li-S batteries.

Tuning the D-Band Center of Bi2S3─MoS2 Heterostructure Towards Superior Lithium-Sulfur Batteries.

Lithium-sulfur (Li-S) batteries are one of the most promising energy storage devices due to their environmental friendliness, low cost, and high specific capacity. However, the slow electrochemical kinetics and the "shuttle effect" have seriously hindered their commercialization. Herein, the nanoflower Bi2S3─MoS2 (BMS) heterostructure is synthesized by a two-step hydrothermal method, and then the Bi2S3─MoS2-Polypropylene (BMS-PP) interlayer is constructed. The heterostructure is rich in active sites, in which BMS has strong adsorption to lithium polysulfides (LiPSs) and can effectively anchor LiPSs while catalyzing LiPSs and promote the redox of Li2S at the same time, which can improve the utilization of active substances. More importantly, the d-band center can be tuned by the formation of Bi2S3─MoS2 heterostructure. Thus, Li-S batteries containing the BMS-PP interlayer show excellent rate performance (841.6 mAh g-1 at 5 C) and cycling performance (70.3% capacity retention after 500 cycles at 3 C). This work provides a new route for high-performance lithium-sulfur batteries.

The Impact of Oxygen Content in O-Doped MoS2 on the Kinetics of Polysulfide Conversion in Li-S Batteries.

Polysulfide shuttle and sluggish sulfur redox kinetics remain key challenges in lithium-sulfur batteries. Previous researches have shown that introducing oxygen into transition metal sulfides helps to capture polysulfides and enhance their conversion kinetics. Based on this, further investigations are conducted to explore the impact of oxygen doping levels on the physical-chemical properties and electrocatalytic performance of MoS2. The findings reveal that MoS2 doped with high-content oxygen exhibits enhanced conductivity and polysulfides conversion kinetics compared to MoS2 with low-content oxygen doping, which can be attributed to the alteration of crystal structure from 2H-phase to the 1T-phase, the introduction of increased Li-O interactions, and the effect of defects resulting from high-oxygen doping. Consequently, the lithium-sulfur batteries using high-oxygen doped MoS2 as a catalyst deliver a high discharge capacity of 1015 mAh g-1 at 0.25C and maintain 78.5% capacity after 300 more cycles. Specifically, lithium-sulfur batteries employing paper-based electrodedemonstrate an areal capacity of 3.91 mAh cm-2 at 0.15C, even with sulfur loading of 4.1 mg cm-2 and electrolyte of 6.7 µL mg-1. These results indicate that oxygen doping levels can modify the properties of MoS2, and high-oxygen doped MoS2 shows promise as an efficient catalyst for lithium-sulfur batteries.

Accelerated Single Li-Ion Transport in Solid Electrolytes for Lithium-Sulfur Batteries: Poly(Arylene Ether Sulfone) Grafted with Pyrrolidinium-Terminated Poly(Ethylene Glycol).

Polymeric solid electrolytes have attracted tremendous interest in high-safety and high-energy capacity lithium-sulfur (Li─S) batteries. There is, however, still a dilemma to concurrently attain high Li-ion conductivity and high mechanical strength that effectively suppress the Li-dendrite growth. Accordingly, a rapidly Li-ion conducting solid electrolyte is prepared by grafting pyrrolidinium cation (PYR+)-functionalized poly(ethylene glycol) onto the poly(arylene ether sulfone) backbone (PAES-g-2PEGPYR). The PYR+ groups effectively immobilize anions of Li-salts in Li-conductive PEGPYR domains phase-separated from PAES matrix to enhance the single-ion conduction. The tailored PAES-g-2PEGPYR membrane shows a high Li-ion transference number of 0.601 and superior ionic conductivity of 1.38 mS cm-1 in the flexible solid state with the tensile strength of 1.0 MPa and Young's modulus of 1.5 MPa. Moreover, this PAES-g-2PEGPYR membrane exhibits a high oxidation potential (5.5 V) and high thermal stability up to 200 (C. The Li/PAES-g-2PEGPYR/Li cell stably operates for 1000 h without any short circuit, and the rechargeable Li/PAES-g-2PEGPYR/S cell discharges a capacity of 1004.7 mAh g-1 at C/5 with the excellent rate capability and the prominent cycling performance of 95.3% retention after 200 cycles.

High-Entropy Metal Nitride Embedded in Concave Porous Carbon Enabling Polysulfide Conversion in Lithium-Sulfur Batteries.

The practical implementation of lithium-sulfur batteries is severely hindered by the rapid capacity fading due to the solubility of the intermediate lithium polysulfides (LiPSs) and the sluggish redox kinetics. Herein, high-entropy metal nitride nanocrystals (HEMN) embedded within nitrogen-doped concave porous carbon (N-CPC) polyhedra are rationally designed as a sulfur host via a facile zeolitic imidazolate framework (ZIF)-driven adsorption-nitridation process toward this challenge. The configuration of high-entropy with incorporated metal manganese (Mn) and chromium (Cr) will optimize the d-band center of active sites with more electrons occupied in antibonding orbitals, thus promoting the adsorption and catalytic conversion of LiPSs. While the concave porous carbon not only accommodates the volume change upon the cycling processes but also physically confines and exposes active sites for accelerated sulfur redox reactions. As a result, the resultant HEMN/N-CPC composites-based sulfur cathode can deliver a high specific capacity of 1274 mAh g-1 at 0.2 C and a low capacity decay rate of 0.044% after 1000 cycles at 1 C. Moreover, upon sulfur loading of 5.0 mg cm-2, the areal capacity of 5.0 mAh cm-2 can still be achieved. The present work may provide a new avenue for the design of high-performance cathodes in Li-S batteries.

Encasing Few-Layer MoS2 within 2D Ordered Cubic Graphitic Cages to Smooth Trapping-Conversion of Lithium Polysulfides for Dendrite-Free Lithium-Sulfur Batteries.

The industrialization of lithium-sulfur (Li-S) batteries faces challenges due to the shuttling effect of lithium polysulfides (LiPSs) and the growth of lithium dendrites. To address these issues, a simple and scalable method is proposed to synthesize 2D membranes comprising a single layer of cubic graphitic cages encased with few-layer, curved MoS2. The distinctive 2D architecture is achieved by confining the epitaxial growth of MoS2 within the open cages of a 2D-ordered mesoporous graphitic framework (MGF), resulting in MoS2@MGF heterostructures with abundant sulfur vacancies. The experimental and theoretical studies establish that these MoS2@MGF membranes can act as a multifunctional interlayer in Li-S batteries to boost their comprehensive performance. The inclusion of the MoS2@MGF interlayer facilitates the trapping and conversion kinetics of LiPSs, preventing their shuttling effect, while simultaneously promoting uniform lithium deposition to inhibit dendrite growth. As a result, Li-S batteries with the MoS2@MGF interlayer exhibit high electrochemical performance even under high sulfur loading and lean electrolyte conditions. This work highlights the potential of designing advanced MoS2-encased heterostructures as interlayers, offering a viable solution to the current limitations plaguing Li-S batteries.

Atomic-Level Catalyst Coupled with Metal Oxide Heterostructure for Promoting Kinetics of Lithium-Sulfur Batteries.

Despite the low competitive cost and high theoretical capacity of lithium-sulfur (Li-S) batteries, their practical application is severely hindered by the lithium polysulfide (LiPS) shuttling and low conversion efficiency. Herein, the electronic structure of hollow Titanium dioxide nanospheres is tunned by single Iron atom dopants that can cooperatively enhance LiPS absorption and facilitate desired redox reaction in practical Li-S batteries, further suppressing the notorious shuttle effect, which is consistent with theoretical calculations and in situ UV/vis investigation. The obtained electrode with massive active sites and lower energy barrier for sulfur conversions exhibits exceptional cycling stability after 500 cycles and high capacity under the sulfur loading of 10.53 mg cm-2. In particular, an Ah-level Li-S pouch cell is fabricated, further demonstrating that the synthetic strategy based on atomic-level design offers a promising route toward practical high-energy-density Li-S batteries.

Coupled Ni─Co Dual-Atom Catalyst for Guiding Sulfur and Lithium Evolutions in Lithium-Sulfur Batteries.

The kinetically retarded sulfur evolution reactions and notorious lithium dendrites as the major obstacles hamper the practical implementation of lithium-sulfur batteries (LSBs). Dual metal atom catalysts as a new model are expected to show higher activity by their rational coupling. Herein, the dual-atom catalyst with coupled Ni─Co atom pairs (Ni/Co-DAC) is designed successfully by programmed approaches. The Ni─Co atom pairs alter the local electron structure and optimize the coordination configuration of Ni/Co-DAC, leading to the coupling effect for promoting the interconversion of sulfur and guiding lithium plating/striping. The LSB delivers a remarkable capacity of 818 mA h g-1 at 3.0 C and a low degeneration rate of 0.053% per cycle over 500 cycles. Moreover, the LSB with a high sulfur mass loading of 6.1 mg cm-2 and lean electrolyte dosage of 6.0 µL mgS -1 shows a remarkable areal capacity of 5.7 mA h cm-2.

Organic Electrolyte Additive: Dual Functions Toward Fast Sulfur Conversion and Stable Li Deposition for Advanced Li-S Batteries.

Lithium-sulfur (Li-S) battery is of great potential for the next generation energy storage device due to the high specific capacity energy density. However, the sluggish kinetics of S redox and the dendrite Li growth are the main challenges to hinder its commercial application. Herein, an organic electrolyte additive, i.e., benzyl chloride (BzCl), is applied as the remedy to address the two issues. In detail, BzCl can split into Bz· radical to react with the polysulfides, forming a Bz-S-Bz intermediate, which changes the conversion path of S and improves the kinetics by accelerating the S splitting. Meanwhile, a tight and robust solid electrolyte interphase (SEI) rich in inorganic ingredients namely LiCl, LiF, and Li2O, is formed on the surface of Li metal, accelerating the ion conductivity and blocking the decomposition of the solvent and lithium polysulfides. Therefore, the Li-S battery with BzCl as the additive remains high capacity of 693.2 mAh g-1 after 220 cycles at 0.5 C with a low decay rate of 0.11%. This work provides a novel strategy to boost the electrochemical performances in both cathode and anode and gives a guide on the electrolyte design toward high-performance Li-S batteries.

Tailoring Interfacial Electric Field by Gold Nanoparticles Enable Electrocatalytic Lithium Polysulfides Conversion for Lithium-Sulfur Batteries.

Although lithium-sulfur batteries (LSBs) are considered as the promising next rechargeable storage system ascribing to their decent specific capacity of inorganic sulfur, the development is partially impeded by inferior electronic conductivity, severe shuttle effect, and large volume variation. To tackle the issues above, a great deal of effort is made on sulfur-containing polymer (SCP) that shows better electrochemical performance. Nevertheless, sluggish conversion of lithium polysulfides (LiPSs) obstructs battery performance yet. Herein, electrocatalytic LiPSs with full conversion by tailoring the interfacial electric field are discovered based on gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) anchored on sulfurized polyaniline (SPANI). A downhill path of Gibbs free energy from organosulfur polymer to intermediate product means more spontaneously and favorable for full conversion, as the significant enhancement of electron density of state in the vicinity of the HOMO level for the AuNPs increase the electron transition probability rate. This composite delivers satisfactory electrochemical performance, especially increased rate capacity of >300 mAh g-1. Furthermore, catalyst mechanism on molecule level is proposed that AuNPsdominate chemical enhancement and higher electron delocalizablility betweenAuNPs and LiPSs molecules. These results can erect a promising strategy for enhancing lithium polysulfides full conversion.

Construction of an Ohmic Contact Cathode by Two Metal Sulfides for efficient Capture and Catalysis of Polysulfide.

The slow reaction kinetics and severe shuttle effect of lithium polysulfide make Li-S battery electrochemical performance difficult to meet the demands of large electronic devices such as electric vehicles. Based on this, an electrocatalyst constructed by metal phase material (MoS2) and semiconductor phase material (SnS2) with ohmic contact is designed for inhibiting the dissolution of lithium polysulfide with improving the reaction kinetics. According to the density-functional theory calculations, it is found that the heterostructured samples with ohmic contacts can effectively reduce the reaction-free energy of lithium polysulfide to accelerate the sulfur redox reaction, in addition to the excellent electron conduction to reduce the overall activation energy. The metallic sulfide can add more sulfophilic sites to promote the capture of polysulfide. Thanks to the ohmic contact design, the carbon nanotube-MoS2-SnS2 achieved a specific capacity of 1437.2 mAh g-1 at 0.1 C current density and 805.5 mAh g-1 after 500 cycles at 1 C current density and is also tested as a pouch cell, which proves to be valuable for practical applications. This work provides a new idea for designing an advanced and efficient polysulfide catalyst based on ohmic contact.

Platinum Electrocatalyst Promoting Redox Kinetics of Li2S and Regulating Li2S Nucleation for Lithium-Sulfur Batteries.

The development of lithium-sulfur batteries (LSBs) is impeded by the shuttle effect of polysulfides (LiPSs) and the sluggish nucleation of Li2S. To address these challenges, incorporating electrocatalysts into sulfur host materials represents an effective strategy for promoting polysulfide conversion, in tandem with the rational design of multifunctional sulfur host materials. In this study, Pt nanoparticles are integrated into biomass-derived carbon materials by solution deposition method. Pt, as an electrocatalyst, not only enhances the electrical conductivity of sulfur cathodes and effectively immobilizes LiPSs but also catalyzes the redox reactions of sulfur species bidirectionally. Additionally, Pt helps regulate the 3D deposition and growth of Li2S while reducing the reaction energy barrier. Consequently, this accelerates the conversion of LiPSs in LSBs. Furthermore, the catalytic ability of Pt for the redox reactions of sulfur species, along with its influence on the 3D deposition and growth of Li2S, is elucidated using electrochemical kinetic analyses and classical models of electrochemical deposition. The cathodes exhibit a high initial specific capacity of 1019.1 mAh g-1 at 1 C and a low decay rate of 0.045% over 1500 cycles. This study presents an effective strategy to regulate Li2S nucleation and enhance the kinetics of polysulfide conversion in LSBs.

Nitrogen-Doped Carbon and Metal-Nitrogen-Carbon Materials as Cathode Hosts for Li-S Batteries: Experimental Study and Mechanism Analysis.

Both nitrogen-doped carbon (NC) and metal-nitrogen-carbon (MNC) materials have been extensively investigated in lithium-sulfur batteries to alleviate the "shuttle effect". MNC are generally synthesized using NC as the parent material, wherein nitrogen atoms in NC serve as the "bridge" to coordinate with metal atoms. So far, an important scientific issue has not been settled: does the introduction of metal sites into NC certainly enhance the Li-S battery performance? In this work, NC and MNC materials derived from the same precursor, a nitrogen-rich porous polymer, are systematically compared as cathode hosts for Li-S battery through theoretical calculations and experimental investigation. Li-S cell with NC as the cathode sulfur host exhibits better cycle performance at low current densities (0.1 and 0.2C), whereas MNC materials predominate at higher current densities (such as 1C and 2C). Based on theoretical calculation and experimental results, it is concluded that the introduction of metal sites into NC through nitrogen bonding promoted the catalytic capability for faster sulfur redox reaction kinetics, whereas the adsorption energy toward polysulfides decreased. This work provides important guidance for more targeted design of advanced materials for lithium-sulfur battery application in the future.

N-Vacancy Enriched Porous BN Fibers for Enhanced Polysulfides Adsorption and Conversion in High-Performance Lithium-Sulfur Batteries.

Severe shuttle effect of soluble polysulfides and sluggish redox kinetics have been thought of as the critical issues hindering the extensive applications of lithium-sulfur batteries (LSBs). Herein, one-dimensional boron nitride (1D BN) fibers with abundant pores and sufficient N-vacancy defects were synthesized using a thermal crystallization following a pre-condensation step. The 1D structure of BN facilitates unblocked ions diffusion pathways during charge/discharge cycles. The embedded pores within the polar BN strengthen the immobilization of polysulfides via both physical confinement and chemical interaction. Moreover, the highly exposed active surface area and intentionally created N-vacancy sites substantially promote reaction kinetics by lowering the energy barriers of the rate-limiting steps. After incorporating with conductive carbon networks and elemental S, the as-prepared S/Nv-BN@CBC cathode of LSBs deliver an initial discharge capacity of up to 1347 mAh g-1 at 200 mA g-1, while maintaining a low decay rate of 0.03 % per cycle over 1000 cycles at 1600 mA g-1. This work offers an effective strategy to mitigate the shuttle effect and highlights the significant potential of defect-engineered BN in accelerating the reaction kinetics of LSBs.

Elevating Lithium-Sulfur Battery Durability through Samarium Oxide/Ketjen Black Modified Separator.

Lithium-sulfur batteries have garnered significant attention as a promising next-generation battery technology due to their potential for high energy density. However, their practical application is hampered by slow reaction kinetics and the shuttle effect of lithium polysulfide intermediates. In this context, the authors introduce a pioneering solution in the form of a novel porous carbon nanostructure modified with samarium oxide, denoted as Sm2O3/KB. The material has a highly polar surface, allowing lithium polysulfide to be chemisorbed efficiently. The unsaturated sites provided by the oxygen vacancies of Sm2O3 promote Li2S nucleation, lowering the reaction energy barrier and accelerating Li2S dissolution. The porous structure of Ketjen Black provides a highly conductive channel for electron transport and effectively traps polysulfides. Meanwhile, the batteries with Sm2O3/KB/PP spacers exhibited remarkable electrochemical performances, including a low-capacity decay rate of only 0.046 % for 1000 cycles at 2 C and an excellent multiplicative performance of 624 mAh g-1 at 3 C. This work opens up a new avenue for the potential use of rare-earth-based materials in lithium-sulfur batteries.

Fabrication of Fe/KB Composite as Sulfur Host for Li-S Battery.

Lithium sulfur battery is a novel kind of secondary battery which has high energy density, however its application is greatly affected by the shuttle effect of polysulfides generated in the redox reaction of cathode electrode. Metal active sites are supposed as effective catalysts which can absorb and accelerate the conversion efficiency of lithium polysulfides, thus the shuttle effect will be alleviated. In this work, we conducted a simple way to prepare a metal Fe doped ketjen black to serve as the sulfur host of lithium sulfur battery. Ketjen black has a large specific surface area and rich porous structure, while Fe nanodot is an excellent catalyst for lithium polysulfides. Because of these advantages, the Fe/KB host can effectively confine a large amount of active material and accelerate its, therefore the Fe/KB-S cathode electrode show an excellent electrochemical performance.

La-doped Porous Fe2O3 Nanorods as Advanced Anodes for Lithium/Sodium Ion Batteries and Sulfur Host for Li-Sulfur Batteries.

Transition metal oxides are investigated as electrochemically active anodes for several years due to the merits of high specific capacity, low cost, abundant resources and controllable synthesis. But the poor cycle performances have hindered their further wide application. Herein, porous La-doped FeOOH nanorods have been synthesized through a facile hydrothermal method, which could be transformed into porous La-doped Fe2O3 (Fe2O3-La) via a simple heating process. Compared with the undoped Fe2O3, the Fe2O3-La showed larger surface area, higher specific capacities and more stable cycle performances for lithium/sodium ion batteries. In addition, as an advanced sulfur host for lithium-sulfur batteries, the Fe2O3-La also displayed much more excellent cycle and rate performances than the undoped Fe2O3. The superior electrochemical performances of the Fe2O3-La may could be attributed to the doping of La, which could induce more porous morphology and offer more reactive sites. The positive effects of La-doping for electrochemical performances of porous Fe2O3 nanorods provide novel insights for further applications of rare earth metal doping.

Metal Organic Frameworks as Polysulfide Reaction Modulators for Lithium Sulfur Batteries: Advances and Perspectives.

Currently, lithium sulfur (Li-S) battery with high theoretical energy density has attracted great research interest. However, the diffusion and loss process of intermediate lithium polysulfide during charge-discharge hindered the application of the Li-S battery in modern life. To overcome this issue, metal organic frameworks (MOFs) and their composites have been regarded as effective additions to restrain the LiPS diffusion process for Li-S battery. Benefiting from the unique structure with rich active sites to adsorb LiPS and accelerate the LiPS redox, the Li-S batteries with MOFs modified exhibit superior electrochemical performance. Considering the rapid development of MOFs in Li-S battery, this review summarizes the recent studies of MOFs and their composites as the sulfur host materials, functional interlayer, separator coating layer, and separator/solid electrolyte for Li-S batteries in detail. In addition, the promising design strategies of functional MOF materials are proposed to improve the electrochemical performance of Li-S battery.