The Pioneer Schools of Occupation: Reflections for Current Practice.

The Pioneer Schools of Occupation: Can They Teach Us Anything Today? This study reviews the development of the pioneer schools of occupation and their curriculum or program design between 1906 and 1923. The purposes are to document the existence of the schools, to explore the issues in establishing the schools, and to compare and contrast concepts stated in early curriculum models with those in current models of practice. The dates were selected to examine ideas before the passage of the Minimum Standards for Courses of Training in Occupational Therapy by the American Occupational Therapy Association (AOTA) outlining a consensus course of study.

Billing, coding, and practice management: a primer for today's reproductive medicine professional.

Despite years of recognition that many physicians are woefully unprepared to face challenges regarding the business of medicine, marginal progress has been made. In this piece, we aim to provide the contemporary reproductive medicine physician with an understanding of billing, coding, and, most importantly, cost containment for a typical fertility practice. It is critical for modern practices to not forego hard-earned revenue to insurance companies or not be aware of critical rules and regulations. While running a successful fertility practice requires good medical care, a profitable practice is necessary for overall long-term success. This article provides a brief history of medical insurance and billing, explains the process of updating billing codes, and reviews the revenue cycle, cost containment, and contract negotiations with insurance companies.

Traditional vocations and modern professions among Tamil Brahmans in colonial and post-colonial south India.

Since the nineteenth century, Tamil Brahmans have been very well represented in the educated professions, especially law and administration, medicine, engineering and nowadays, information technology. This is partly a continuation of the Brahmans' role as literate service people, owing to their traditions of education, learning and literacy, but the range of professions shows that any direct continuity is more apparent than real. Genealogical data are particularly used as evidence about changing patterns of employment, education and migration. Caste traditionalism was not a determining constraint, for Tamil Brahmans were predominant in medicine and engineering as well as law and administration in the colonial period, even though medicine is ritually polluting and engineering resembles low-status artisans' work. Crucially though, as modern, English-language, credential-based professions that are wellpaid and prestigious, law, medicine and engineering were and are all deemed eminently suitable for Tamil Brahmans, who typically regard their professional success as a sign of their caste superiority in the modern world. In reality, though, it is mainly a product of how their old social and cultural capital and their economic capital in land were transformed as they seized new educational and employment opportunities by flexibly deploying their traditional, inherited skills and advantages.

The Doctor of Nursing Practice degree: lessons from the history of the professional doctorate in other health disciplines.

Despite the American Association of Colleges of Nursing's adoption of the Doctor of Nursing Practice (DNP) degree as the appropriate level of education for advanced practice, a number of controversies have persisted, including questions of timing, academic support, grandfathering, diffusion of nursing research, and economics. This article discusses the path to the professional doctorate in optometry, osteopathy, public health, pharmacy, physical therapy, audiology, chiropractic, and naturopathy. It reveals similar struggles to professionalism and the consensus drawn from doctoral development in these fields. It concludes with lessons for a path forward for the DNP.

The Virtues of Scientific Practice: MacIntyre, Virtue Ethics, and the Historiography of Science.

"Practice" has become a ubiquitous term in the history of science, and yet historians have not always reflected on its philosophical import and in particular on its potential connections with ethics. This essay draws on the work of the virtue ethicist Alasdair MacIntyre to develop a theory of "communal practices" and explore how such an approach can inform the history of science, including allegations about the corruption of science by wealth or power, consideration of scientific ethics or "moral economies," the role of values in science, the ethical distinctiveness (or not) of scientific vocations, and the relationship between history of science and the practice of science itself.

Flexibility or Inexactitude? The "Lab 60" at Karolinska Institutet: From Medical Disciplines towards the Modern Biomedical Complex.

In 1960, a new laboratory ("Lab 60") was built on the premises of Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm. This paper describes how the laboratory was envisioned. While planners and builders strove to optimise a generic laboratory, researchers argued for specialisation. The compromise was to enhance the reorganisation capability of the interior (flexibility) while simultaneously creating a "movable" institution consisting of researchers temporarily working in the laboratory for periods of three to five years, regardless of their disciplinary affiliation. Even though flexibility was not a novelty, the building succeeded as an organisational experiment and encouraged the abandonment of the model of one discipline, one professor, and one building in favour of a "movable" institution conducting temporary research. While the credibility of laboratories was established by their "placelessness" (anywhere), Lab 60 imitated multiple, heterogeneous sites (anything) in order to maintain credibility. As such, the lab embodied many sites between the disciplines of chemistry and medicine.

[Professional medical identities in contention: The National Practitioners' Congress, Brazil (1922)]. / Identidades profissionais médicas em disputa: Congresso Nacional dos Práticos, Brasil (1922).

The object of this paper is the debate among the Brazilian medical elite during the National Practitioners' Congress (Congresso Nacional dos Práticos - 1922). The article begins by analyzing a specific moment in the medical profession's history in early 20th-century Brazil, specifically Rio de Janeiro's 1922 National Practitioners' Congress. The author presents three profiles of medical practice observed in that context: generalists, specialists, and hygienists. He further analyzes their characteristics, similarities, and differences, as well as the strategies for professional affirmation adopted by physicians with these profiles. The article addresses the following issues: What were the relationships between the specialization process, forms of remuneration, and the construction of new professional identities? What identities did medical doctors create for themselves? What were the rivalries between these different professional identities? How did they portray outside competitors, such as the so-called traditional healers? Finally, the author presents several methodological suggestions that may contribute to historical research on the medical profession.

Embracing our past, informing our future: a feminist re-vision of health care.

Using a feminist perspective, this paper explores the roots of the practice of healing and medicine. It traces the role of women in health care from prehistorical times, through the present, and into the future discussing the changing paradigms that the author identifies as (a) the Prototypic Paradigm: Mysticism and Healing; (b) the Scientific Paradigm: Curing; and (c) the Paradigm of Inclusion: Caring, Curing, and Healing. The role and status of women in society are reflected within these paradigms, and the changing status of the profession of occupational therapy is discussed within this framework. The unique skills and contributions of occupational therapy more closely fit within the Paradigm of Inclusion and can support us as health care leaders within the changing world of the 21st century.

A glance back in time, 1968. The emerging health occupations.

As individuals, we have history, the present, and the future. Each of us is the embodiment of these experiences. In order to understand nursing today and its future paths, our history needs exploration. In an effort to provide the reader a perspective on where we were, how far we have traveled, or, in some instances, how little has changed, we reprint this article from Nursing Forum, 1968, 7(1),87-97.

Organized medicine and physician specialization in Scandinavia and West Germany.

An analysis of post-graduate medical training is utilized to explore political relationships between physician organizations, government bureaucrats and the medical professoriate in Scandinavia and West Germany. The 'enchambered' German medical profession differs from its Scandinavian counterparts largely in the number and political influence of private specialists, who have been politically dominant within the compulsory German organizations. Whereas the Scandinavian medical organizations have, under varying degrees of duress, yielded the authority for specialist accreditation to state-appointed committees, the German chambers have been able to maintain control of this process. Some leaders have also cooperated with medical faculties to thwart attempts by general practitioners to establish zones of GP influence in the medical schools. However, in the context of a worsening medical market in the 1980s, their ability to mediate intra-professional conflicts between GPs and specialists, and between junior and senior doctors, may decrease, and their retention of greater self-governing powers in comparison with Scandinavia, may prove a mixed blessing.

Physiotherapy's quest for professional status in Ontario, 1950-80.

Physiotherapy is part of the new female-dominated paramedical occupations which have witnessed considerable growth in Canada since World War II. This article examines the main dimensions of physiotherapy's professionalizing drive in Ontario between 1950 and 1980. It discusses the leadership's continuing efforts to make physiotherapy a self-regulated profession, efforts which will be seriously challenged by the provincial government's growing intervention in the health sector in the 1970s. It also examines physiotherapy's involvement in boundary disputes with the medical profession and chiropractic. Finally, the article explores the influence of gender on physiotherapy's professionalizing efforts, providing insights on the means women health practitioners have used to gain professional status and on the limits and constraints that their gender may have posed to the achievement of their goal.

[Strike of doctors in the Uwajima clan (a quarrel among physicians)].

The following article tells about an incident from the history of the Uwajima clan, which occurred in 1816. Bokuan Kako, one of the private doctors of the clan often quarreled with the other doctors about usual medicines for a young lord. The clan authorities' support for Bokuan's claim made the other doctors feel dissatisfied. Then, on the day when they were supposed to go up to Edo for an alternate-year residence, the other doctors resorted to the tactics of absenteeism owing to illness. In spite of their insolent doings, they went unpunished just to avoid medical confusion in the clan.

[The practice of medicine at the end of the Second Empire: according to a book, appearing in 1865, by Dr. Camille Delvaille, physician in Bayonne]. / L'exercice de la médecine à la fin du Second empire: d'après un livre, paru en 1865, du docteur Camille Delvaille, médecin à Bayonne.

Dr Camille Delvaille (1835-1904) was a physician in Bayonne. He wrote many books about scientific problems and social medicine; he was one of the first to suggest medical control at school. In a book, written in 1865, he studied everyday practice in France. He complained against the "Officiers de Sante" who exercised medicine mainly in the countryside but were not doctors and had followed very short medical studies. Dr Delvaille deplored that it meant two kinds of cares: doctors for top people and Officiers de Sante for poor patients. In fact, the end of the Officiat de Sante occured only in 1892. Dr Delvaille studied also some problems related to medical demography; he purposed for our country a law cutting down foreign practice in France. Then, he put forward nomination of Professors or hospital's physicians through an examination instead of routine cooptation. Some of his minds are ahead and were applied later.

[Pharmacists in code of public health]. / La place des pharmaciens dans le code de la santé publique.

Codification is a major issue. As a new Code of Public Health is under way, pharmacists have to decide whether they will join with the other health professions or prefer to stand a part.