Young children are more likely to cheat after overhearing that a classmate is smart.

Research on moral socialization has largely focused on the role of direct communication and has almost completely ignored a potentially rich source of social influence: evaluative comments that children overhear. We examined for the first time whether overheard comments can shape children's moral behavior. Three- and 5-year-old children (N = 200) participated in a guessing game in which they were instructed not to cheat by peeking. We randomly assigned children to a condition in which they overheard an experimenter tell another adult that a classmate who was no longer present is smart, or to a control condition in which the overheard conversation consisted of non-social information. We found that 5-year-olds, but not 3-year-olds, cheated significantly more often if they overheard the classmate praised for being smart. These findings show that the effects of ability praise can spread far beyond the intended recipient to influence the behavior of children who are mere observers, and they suggest that overheard evaluative comments can be an important force in shaping moral development.

Verbal Instruction Reduces Patellofemoral Joint Loading During Bodyweight Squatting.

CONTEXT: The bodyweight squat exercise is a common component for treatment and prevention of patellofemoral pain; however, it can also place a high load on the patellofemoral joint. Restricting anterior motion of the knees relative to the toes during squatting appears to reduce patellofemoral loading. However, exercise professionals typically rely on verbal instructions to alter squat technique. OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the influence of verbal instructions regarding squat technique on patellofemoral joint loading. DESIGN: Cross-sectional study. SETTING: Motion analysis laboratory. PARTICIPANTS: Eleven uninjured females. INTERVENTION: Participants performed bodyweight squats before (baseline) and after receiving verbal instructions to limit anterior knee motion. Two different types of verbal instruction were used, one intended to promote an internal focus of attention and the other intended to promote an external focus of attention. Three-dimensional kinematics and kinetics were recorded using a multicamera system and force plate. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Sagittal plane patellofemoral joint forces and stress were estimated using a musculoskeletal model. RESULTS: Participants demonstrated a reduction in patellofemoral joint forces (35.4 vs 31.3 N/kg; P = .01) and stress (10.7 vs 9.2 mPa; P = .002) after receiving instructions promoting an internal focus of attention, compared with their baseline trials. Participants also demonstrated a reduction in patellofemoral joint forces (35.4 vs 32.3 N/kg; P = .03) and stress (10.7 vs 9.6 mPa; P = .04) after receiving instructions promoting an external focus of attention (vs baseline). However, there were no significant differences in patellofemoral forces (P = .84) or stress (P = .41) for trials performed with an internal versus external attentional focus. CONCLUSION: It appears that verbal instruction regarding knee position influences patellofemoral joint loading during squatting.

The effects of attentional focus instructions on punching velocity and impact forces among trained combat athletes.

Research indicates that instructing athlete's to focus on bodily movements (internal focus of attention [IFA]) may hinder performance, whereas instructing them to focus on the movement outcome (external focus of attention [EFA]) often enhances performance. Despite the importance of instructions in striking combat sports, limited research has examined the influence of IFA and EFA on performance in well-trained combat athletes. This study investigated the effects of different instructional cues on punching velocity (m · s-1) and normalised impact forces (N · kg-1) among intermediate (n = 8) and expert (n = 7) competitive boxers and kickboxers. Athletes completed three rounds of 12 maximal effort punches delivered to a punching integrator on three separate days. Day one was a familiarisation session with only control instructions provided. In the following two days athletes randomly received IFA, EFA or control instructions prior to each of the three rounds. Athletes punching with EFA were 4% faster and 5% more forceful than IFA (P < 0.05), and 2% faster and 3% more forceful than control (P < 0.05). Furthermore, experts punched 11% faster and with 13% greater force compared with intermediate athletes (P < 0.05). EFA led to a positive effect on punching performance and should be favoured over IFA and control instructions.

Strategies to improve the Willingness to Taste: The moderating role of children's Reward Sensitivity.

The present study investigates the effectiveness of different strategies to improve Willingness to Taste disliked vegetables and the moderating role of Reward Sensitivity. Preschool children (N = 204; age: M = 4.48, SD = 1.01) were randomly allocated to one of four different Willingness to Taste strategies. The findings indicate that first, Willingness to Taste is higher in the modelling and reward strategies compared to neutral instructions. Second, there is a differential effect of Willingness to Taste strategies dependent upon individual differences: children high in Reward Sensitivity were more likely to taste immediately when rewarded, while children low in Reward Sensitivity were more willing to taste when verbally encouraged, but with hesitation. This article thus highlights the roles of both individual differences and behavioral techniques for promoting a healthy diet in children.

Teaching psychomotor skills in the twenty-first century: Revisiting and reviewing instructional approaches through the lens of contemporary literature.

A diverse range of health professionals use psychomotor skills as part of their professional practice roles. Most health disciplines use large or complex psychomotor skills. These skills are first taught by the educator then acquired, performed, and lastly learned. Psychomotor skills may be taught using a variety of widely-accepted and published teaching models. The number of teaching steps used in these models varies from two to seven. However, the utility of these models to teach skill acquisition and skill retention are disputable when teaching complex skills, in contrast to simple skills. Contemporary motor learning and cognition literature frames instructional practices which may assist the teaching and learning of complex task-based skills. This paper reports 11 steps to be considered when teaching psychomotor skills.

Can corrective information reduce negative appraisals of intrusive thoughts in a community sample?

BACKGROUND: Improving mental health literacy in the general population is important as it is associated with early detection and treatment-seeking for mental health problems. Target areas for mental health literacy programs should be guided by research that tests the impact of improving knowledge of psychological constructs associated with the development of mental health problems. AIMS: This study investigated the impact of providing corrective information about the nature of intrusive thoughts on their subsequent appraisal in a community sample. METHOD: In an online, experimental design, 148 community participants completed measures of obsessive-compulsive symptoms and appraisals (Obsessive Compulsive Inventory-Revised [OCI-R]; Intrusions Inventory [III]). Individuals were instructed to read either a brief informational text about the nature of intrusive thoughts or a control text. All participants then completed post-test measurements of appraisals. Intervention effectiveness was analysed using hierarchical multiple regression. RESULTS: Individuals in the intervention group reported significantly lower levels of maladaptive appraisals than those in the control group (α = .05). CONCLUSIONS: The results of this study support the efficacy of provision of brief written information in reducing negative appraisals of intrusive thoughts in a community sample. It suggests a possible role for education about intrusive thoughts as a prevention strategy for obsessive-compulsive disorder.

Self-talk functions: portrayal of an elite power lifter.

The study presents the results of a case study with a repeated data collection design: a recent and former world champion power lifter provided weekly e-mails, during approximately 6 mo. of training and competition, with a description of his 'self-determined self-talk.' The instruction used for self-talk (ST) mentioned its associations with emotions, staying focused, maintaining motivation, and improving exercise skills. The obtained e-mails were coded using categories indicating functions of 'self-determined self-talk' mainly based on previous literature. The frequency of the functions during training and competition were compared and discussed following the qualitative research tradition.

The effects of verbal encouragement and conscientiousness on maximal voluntary contraction of the triceps surae muscle in elite athletes.

We investigated the effect of verbal encouragement on maximal voluntary contraction (MVC) level of the triceps surae muscle group. Our secondary focus was to examine whether the effect of verbal encouragement on MVC level varies as a result of conscientiousness. While the participants performed plantar flexion, MVCs of the triceps surae muscle group were measured using rectified and smoothed surface electromyography (rsEMG) during the absence and presence of verbal encouragement. Participants completed questions from the Five Factor Personality Inventory concerning conscientiousness and were divided into high- and low-conscientiousness groups according to a median split. The sample included 30 female and 53 male elite athletes. In the entire cohort, there was no significant difference in MVCs with and without verbal encouragement. When the sample was partitioned by conscientiousness scores, verbal encouragement led to a significant increase in MVC in the low-conscientiousness group, whereas verbal encouragement led to a non-significant decrease in MVC in the high-conscientiousness group. Percentage change in MVC across experimental conditions was significantly different between the groups, with a 9.72% increase during verbal encouragement of the low-conscientiousness group, and a 2.47% decrease during verbal encouragement of the high-conscientiousness group.

Pattern of parental acceptance of management techniques used in pediatric dentistry.

AIM: To evaluate parents' acceptance of management techniques in Israeli pediatric dental clinics. STUDY DESIGN: Ninety parents who accompanied their children to three pediatric dental clinics provided information on selected parameters including their attitudes about management techniques. RESULTS: 68.9% of the parents preferred to stay in the treatment room. The most accepted technique was positive reinforcement (81.1%) followed by tell-show-do (TSD) (76.7%, with younger parents more accepting than older, p = 0.049). The least accepted techniques were restraint (1.1%) and voice control (7.8%, especially by parents with the highest dental anxiety, p = 0.002). Sedation was unacceptable by 15.6% of the parents: those with the lowest dental anxiety agreed to sedation significantly more than those with greater dental anxiety (p = 0.031). CONCLUSIONS: Parents preferred more positive approaches and management techniques that involve demonstrations geared for the child's level of understanding. Restraint and voice control were more strongly rejected than sedation.

[The reward impact on the performance of verbal creative tasks: behavioral and EEG effects].

The aim of this study was to compare the effects of stimulating originality verbal instruction (IN1) and monetary reward (IN2) on originality of solutions of a verbal creative task and EEG-correlates of activity, determined on the basis of biopotentials power mapping in the frequency range 4-30 Hz. Right-handed students (10 men and 10 women) took part in experiment. An increase of solutions originality under the influence of monetary reward was revealed. At the promise of monetary reward in comparison with IN1, there was a global increase of the task-related theta2 power. Common to the teta1, 2 and alpha2 bands was increase in hemispheric asymmetry of these rhythms power with higher values in the right hemisphere of the brain. These changes have been observed already in the background EEG after IN2 and testify that generalized changes in hemispheric asymmetry provide the preparatory state after the promise of monetary reward. Regional brain activity changes were associated with beta2 rhythm. Under IN2 in comparison with IN1 the task-related power decreased in all posterior electrode sites except for frontotemporal. Reward-related EEG changes were more typical for men. In men only, promised monetary reward increased theta2 asymmetry and task-induced alpha power. Our results suggest that promise of monetary reward for creative thinking can increase verbal creativity. Gender differences in the reward-related EEG power changes show that men and women differ in neurophysiologic mechanisms that underlie increase of creativity.

Collaborative eye tracking: a potential training tool in laparoscopic surgery.

BACKGROUND: Eye-tracking technology has been shown to improve trainee performance in the aircraft industry, radiology, and surgery. The ability to track the point-of-regard of a supervisor and reflect this onto a subjects' laparoscopic screen to aid instruction of a simulated task is attractive, in particular when considering the multilingual make up of modern surgical teams and the development of collaborative surgical techniques. We tried to develop a bespoke interface to project a supervisors' point-of-regard onto a subjects' laparoscopic screen and to investigate whether using the supervisor's eye-gaze could be used as a tool to aid the identification of a target during a surgical-simulated task. METHODS: We developed software to project a supervisors' point-of-regard onto a subjects' screen whilst undertaking surgically related laparoscopic tasks. Twenty-eight subjects with varying levels of operative experience and proficiency in English undertook a series of surgically minded laparoscopic tasks. Subjects were instructed with verbal queues (V), a cursor reflecting supervisor's eye-gaze (E), or both (VE). Performance metrics included time to complete tasks, eye-gaze latency, and number of errors. RESULTS: Completion times and number of errors were significantly reduced when eye-gaze instruction was employed (VE, E). In addition, the time taken for the subject to correctly focus on the target (latency) was significantly reduced. CONCLUSIONS: We have successfully demonstrated the effectiveness of a novel framework to enable a supervisor eye-gaze to be projected onto a trainee's laparoscopic screen. Furthermore, we have shown that utilizing eye-tracking technology to provide visual instruction improves completion times and reduces errors in a simulated environment. Although this technology requires significant development, the potential applications are wide-ranging.

How are personality judgments made? A cognitive model of reference group effects, personality scale responses, and behavioral reactions.

This article suggests that personality judgments are wholly relative, being the outcome of a comparison of a given individual to a reference group of others. The underlying comparison processes are the same as those used to judge psychophysical stimuli (as outlined by range frequency theory and decision by sampling accounts). Five experimental studies show that the same person's personality is rated differently depending on how his or her behavior (a) ranks within a reference group and (b) falls within the overall range of behavior shown by other reference group members. Results were invariant across stimulus type and response options (7-point Likert scale, 990-point allocation task, or dichotomous choice). Simulated occupational scenarios led participants to give different-sized bonuses and employ different people as a function of context. Future research should note that personality judgments (as in self-report personality scales) only represent perceived standing relative to others or alternatively should measure personality through behavior or biological reactivity. Personality judgments cannot be used to compare different populations when the population participants have different reference groups (as in cross-cultural research).

Valuing clients' perspective and the effects on the therapeutic alliance: a randomized controlled study of an adjunctive instruction.

The patterns of growth and development of the therapeutic alliance over the course of therapy have been of continued interest to psychotherapy researchers. The purpose of this study was to investigate whether a simple institutional metacommunication intervention with clients had an effect on the development of the alliance. This adjunctive instruction involved inviting therapy clients to take a proactive role in their treatment by encouraging feedback to their therapist about various aspects of the therapy process. In this randomized controlled study (N = 94), clients were assigned to 1 of 2 conditions: (a) an institutional adjunctive instruction condition in which patients were contacted by clinic personnel at the beginning of the remediation phase (Session 5) and encouraged to take a proactive role in their treatment and (b) a control condition that contained no institutional adjunctive instruction. Between-condition differences in the alliance were tested, controlling for baseline influences and the early therapeutic alliance. Clients' postsession reports from Sessions 1 to 24 indicated that the adjunctive instruction increased the alliance over the course of therapy vis-à-vis the control condition. The adjunctive instruction appeared to have fostered clients' evaluation of their therapists' interest in their welfare. The results indicate that interventions, even brief or subtle, can produce lasting benefits in the alliance when targeted at specific psychological processes. Systematic metacommunication from the institutional level appeared to reinforce clients' therapeutic alliance with their therapists in individual treatment.

Two-year follow-up of the Lidcombe Program in ten Swedish-speaking children.

PURPOSE: The purpose of this semicontrolled prospective study was to report on the outcomes of 10 Swedish-speaking children treated with the Lidcombe Program and how the parents viewed the treatment. METHOD: Ten children at an age from 2:9 to 5:8 (years:months) referred to two clinics for communication disorders were consecutively included in the study. The children had been stuttering for 0:9 to 3:3 with a mean stuttering frequency of 10.1% syllables stuttered (%SS; 0.8-33.9) before treatment. Parents and teachers filled out questionnaires concerning the children's speech and the parents also answered questions on their views on the program. RESULTS: Eight children completed the program and were reassessed upon completion of the program, about 2 years after progressing to stage 2. There was a significant decrease in mean %SS before and after treatment (7.6 vs. 0.1%, respectively) with a large Cohen effect size (d = 2.9). Parents and teachers found that the treatment had a positive effect on the children's stuttering and all parents would recommend the Lidcombe Program to other families. CONCLUSION: The results of this preliminary study suggest that the Lidcombe Program can be an effective treatment for Swedish-speaking preschool children who stutter.

Effect of verbal cueing on trajectory anticipation in the penalty kick among novice football goalkeepers.

The effect of a cueing technique on novice goalkeepers' anticipation of trajectory in penalty kicks was investigated. 28 novice football goalkeepers from junior teams were randomly selected and divided into experimental (n = 14) and control (n = 14) groups. Following a pre-test, participants performed 30 trials of a simulated penalty-kicking task in a spatially occluded condition. They were required to react to penalty kicks and were informed of their performance in anticipating the direction in which the ball was kicked. The experimental group received cues about the position of the non-kicking foot of the kicker, but the control group did not. The two-way analysis of variance showed the significant main effects of blocks of trials and group, but the interaction was not significant. The experimental group more accurately anticipated the direction of the penalty kicks than the control group. The cueing technique benefited the novice goalkeepers in anticipating the direction of penalty kicks, due to the informative nature of the cue for skill execution.

[Analysis of event-related potentials to verbal stimuli in healthy subjects and schizophrenia patients].

In 30 healthy subjects and 32 patients after the first episode of schizophrenia 19 channel-EEG was recorded during visual presentation of a random sequence of words and pseudo-words. In the first series of the experiments, subjects had to read the presented verbal stimuli, in the second series they had to press a button when seeing a word, and in the third series they were instructed to press the button when seeing a pseudo-word. We studied components N170, P300 and N400. In the group of healthy subjects, the amplitude of N170 increased to words in the situation of their relevance, which corresponds to the "recognition potential", whereas in the group of patients, the amplitude of N170 increased to pseudo-words when they were relevant. So it was a paradoxical response. The amplitude of the ERP later waves (P300 and N400) in the group of schizophrenic patients was smaller and the relevance effect was impaired when the target stimuli were pseudo-words. However, the incongruity effect consisting in an increase in N400 amplitude to a non-target stimulus remained intact in patients.

Reliability and validity of a modified Bristol Stool Form Scale for children.

OBJECTIVES: This study sought to: evaluate the ability of children to reliably use a modified Bristol Stool Form Scale for Children (mBSFS-C), evaluate criterion-related validity of the mBSFS-C, and identify the lower age limit for mBSFS-C use. STUDY DESIGN: The mBSFS-C comprises 5 stool form types described and depicted in drawings. Children 3 to 18 years old rated stool form for 10 stool photographs. Because of low reliability when stool form descriptors were not read aloud (n = 119), a subsequent sample of children (n = 191) rated photographs with descriptors read. RESULTS: Intraclass correlation coefficients for descriptor-unread versus -read samples were 0.62 and 0.79, respectively. Children were increasingly reliable with age. Percentage of correct ratings varied with stool form type, but generally increased with age. With descriptors unread, children 8 years and older demonstrated acceptable interobserver reliability, with >78% of ratings correct. With descriptors read, children 6 years and older demonstrated acceptable reliability, with >80% of ratings correct. CONCLUSIONS: The mBSFS-C is reliable and valid for use by children, with age 6 years being the lower limit for scale use with descriptors read and age 8 years being the lower limit without descriptors read. We anticipate that the mBSFS-C can be effectively used in pediatric clinical and research settings.

The effects of verbal instructions on gait in people with Parkinson's disease: a systematic review of randomized and non-randomized trials.

OBJECTIVE: To collate and appraise empirical evidence relating to the effects of verbal instructions (verbal commands given by another person) on stride length, gait velocity and stride variability in people with Parkinson's disease. DATA SOURCES: Cinahl, Cochrane, Embase, Medline, PEDro, PsycINFO and Web of Science. REVIEW METHODS: Independent reviewers extracted data from eligible studies and assessed methodological quality. The level of evidence was determined by best evidence synthesis based upon the experimental design, methodological quality and statistical findings of individual studies. RESULTS: One randomized controlled study and 12 non-controlled studies fulfilled the selection criteria and involved 149 participants. Five types of verbal instructions were examined which included 'take big steps', 'walk fast', 'swing arms when walking', 'count rhythm when walking' and 'walk fast with big steps'. Best evidence synthesis found indicative evidence in support of the use of the instruction to take big steps in walking training for stride length improvement in people with mild to moderate Parkinson's disease who are without cognitive impairment. There was insufficient evidence in support of effects on gait velocity and stride variability. There was also insufficient evidence in support of effects of other instructions on any of the gait variables. CONCLUSION: The empirical evidence in support of the benefits from verbal instructions is weak. The evidence is limited to short-term stride length improvement from the use of the instruction to take big steps in walking training.

Acute effects of verbal feedback on upper-body performance in elite athletes.

Argus, CK, Gill, ND, Keogh, JWL, and Hopkins, WG. Acute effects of verbal feedback on upper-body performance in elite athletes. J Strength Cond Res 25(12): 3282-3287, 2011-Improved training quality has the potential to enhance training adaptations. Previous research suggests that receiving feedback improves single-effort maximal strength and power tasks, but whether quality of a training session with repeated efforts can be improved remains unclear. The purpose of this investigation was to determine the effects of verbal feedback on upper-body performance in a resistance training session consisting of multiple sets and repetitions in well-trained athletes. Nine elite rugby union athletes were assessed using the bench throw exercise on 4 separate occasions each separated by 7 days. Each athlete completed 2 sessions consisting of 3 sets of 4 repetitions of the bench throw with feedback provided after each repetition and 2 identical sessions where no feedback was provided after each repetition. When feedback was received, there was a small increase of 1.8% (90% confidence limits, ±2.7%) and 1.3% (±0.7%) in mean peak power and velocity when averaged over the 3 sets. When individual sets were compared, there was a tendency toward the improvements in mean peak power being greater in the second and third sets. These results indicate that providing verbal feedback produced acute improvements in upper-body power output of well-trained athletes. The benefits of feedback may be greatest in the latter sets of training and could improve training quality and result in greater long-term adaptation.

Material-specific difficulties in episodic memory tasks in mild traumatic brain injury.

The study examines acute, material-specific secondary memory performance in 26 patients with mild traumatic brain injury (MTBI) and 26 healthy controls, matched on demographic variables and indexes of crystallized intelligence. Neuropsychological tests were used to evaluate primary and secondary memory, executive functions, and verbal fluency. Participants were also tested on episodic memory tasks involving words, pseudowords, pictures of common objects, and abstract kaleidoscopic images. Patients showed reduced performance on episodic memory measures, and on tasks associated with visuospatial processing and executive function (Trail Making Test part B, semantic fluency). Significant differences between groups were also noted for correct rejections and response bias on the kaleidoscope task. MTBI patients' reduced performance on memory tasks for complex, abstract stimuli can be attributed to a dysfunction in the strategic component of memory process.