The TGFß superfamily in cardiac dysfunction.

ABSTRACT

TGFß superfamily includes the transforming growth factor ßs (TGFßs), bone morphogenetic proteins (BMPs), growth and differentiation factors (GDFs) and Activin/Inhibin families of ligands. Among the 33 members of TGFß superfamily ligands, many act on multiple types of cells within the heart, including cardiomyocytes, cardiac fibroblasts/myofibroblasts, coronary endothelial cells, smooth muscle cells, and immune cells (e.g. monocytes/macrophages and neutrophils). In this review, we highlight recent discoveries on TGFßs, BMPs, and GDFs in different cardiac residential cellular components, in association with functional impacts in heart development, injury repair, and dysfunction. Specifically, we will review the roles of TGFßs, BMPs, and GDFs in cardiac hypertrophy, fibrosis, contractility, metabolism, angiogenesis, and regeneration.