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Acute gastroenteritis (AGE) represents a world public health relevant problem especially in children. Enteric viruses are the pathogens mainly involved in the episodes of AGE, causing about 70.00% of the cases. Apart from well-known rotavirus (RVA), adenovirus (AdV) and norovirus (NoV), there are various emerging viral pathogens potentially associated with AGE episodes. In this study, the presence of ten different enteric viruses was investigated in 152 fecal samples collected from children hospitalized for gastroenteritis. Real time PCR results showed that 49.3% of them were positive for viral detection with the following prevalence: norovirus GII 19.7%, AdV 15.8%, RVA 10.5%, human parechovirus (HPeV) 5.3%, enterovirus (EV) 3.3%, sapovirus (SaV) 2.6%. Salivirus (SalV), norovirus GI and astrovirus (AstV) 1.3% each, aichivirus (AiV) found in only one patient. In 38.2% of feces only one virus was detected, while co-infections were identified in 11.8% of the cases. Among young patients, 105 were ≤5 years old and 56.0% tested positive for viral detection, while 47 were >5 years old with 40.0% of them infected. Results obtained confirm a complex plethora of viruses potentially implicated in gastroenteritis in children, with some of them previously known for other etiologies but detectable in fecal samples. Subsequent studies should investigate the role of these viruses in causing gastroenteritis and explore the possibility that other symptoms may be ascribed to multiple infections.
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COVID-19 , Coinfección , Heces , Gastroenteritis , Humanos , Gastroenteritis/virología , Gastroenteritis/epidemiología , Preescolar , Coinfección/virología , Coinfección/epidemiología , Heces/virología , Lactante , Italia/epidemiología , Niño , Masculino , Femenino , COVID-19/epidemiología , COVID-19/virología , Sapovirus/aislamiento & purificación , Sapovirus/genética , Virus/aislamiento & purificación , Virus/clasificación , Virus/genética , Prevalencia , Norovirus/aislamiento & purificación , Norovirus/genética , Adolescente , Virosis/epidemiología , Virosis/virología , Recién Nacido , SARS-CoV-2 , Rotavirus/aislamiento & purificación , Rotavirus/genética , Adenoviridae/aislamiento & purificaciónRESUMEN
BACKGROUND: Pseudorabies is an infection of domestic and wild pigs that has occasionally been reported in dogs with fatal encephalitis. Hunting dogs are predisposed to pseudorabies exposure due to incorrect practices (administration of raw infected meat) or close contact with infected wild boars. This study described an outbreak of pseudorabies in two hunting dogs in the Campania region, southern Italy. CASE PRESENTATION: Two hunting dogs were hospitalized after a hunting trip, with fever, itching, and self-inflicted lesions. Laboratory tests showed mild anemia and marked leukocytosis. Despite conservative therapy, both animals died 48 h after the presentation of symptoms. One of the carcasses was sent to the Department of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Production in Naples to confirm the suspicion of pseudorabies. DNA was extracted from different matrices and used as a template for real-time PCR to detect PRV. Several samples (brain, cerebellum, brainstem, lung, and liver) tested positive. Subsequent sequence analyses of glycoprotein E from DNA extracted from the brain stem revealed a sequence similarity to those described in previous cases of pseudorabies in dogs in Italy, France and Belgium. One month after the outbreak, blood samples were collected from 42 dogs belonging to the same hunting team and from 245 dogs (cohort population) living in the Campania region. All samples were tested with two commercial ELISAs to detect seroconversion against glycoproteins B and E. A seroprevalence of 19% was observed in the hunting team affected by the outbreak, while only 0.8% was observed in the regional dog population. CONCLUSIONS: The data reported in this study demonstrate potential exposure to PRV by dead-end hosts, particularly hunting dogs. The sequencing results indicated the homogeneity of PRV strains circulating in the different Italian regions.
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Brotes de Enfermedades , Enfermedades de los Perros , Seudorrabia , Animales , Perros , Brotes de Enfermedades/veterinaria , Enfermedades de los Perros/epidemiología , Herpesvirus Suido 1/genética , Italia/epidemiología , Seudorrabia/epidemiología , Seudorrabia/virologíaRESUMEN
Taenia hydatigena cysticercosis is a widespread parasitic disease of wild and domestic animals. In Europe, the increase in wild boar population may potentially contribute to the spread of this parasitic infection. To determine the occurrence of cysticerci (metacestodes) in wild boar population from southern Italy, carcasses were inspected during three hunting seasons (2016-2018). Out of 3363 wild boar examined, 229 (6.8%) harboured cysticerci with 188 (82.1%) infected by a single cyst, vs 41 (17.9%) boars having more than one. Most of the positive animals (187; 81.7%) showed cysts on the liver, whereas a multiple localization of cysticerci was reported in 10 (4.4%) wild boar. The total number of cysts retrieved from positive animals was 301 (average 1.3). Molecular analysis revealed the occurrence of a common haplotype (Hap 8) shared between wild boar and domestic animals. Our findings suggest the presence of a T. hydatigena semi-domestic life cycle in which wild boar may play an important role, due to a large number of offal available to hunting dogs, wolves and foxes during hunting seasons. Hunters may be players in the management of wildlife species to control and prevent the circulation of parasitic diseases.
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Cisticercosis/veterinaria , Enfermedades de los Porcinos/epidemiología , Taenia/fisiología , Animales , Cisticercosis/epidemiología , Cisticercosis/parasitología , Femenino , Variación Genética , Italia/epidemiología , Masculino , Dinámica Poblacional , Prevalencia , Sus scrofa , Porcinos , Enfermedades de los Porcinos/parasitología , Taenia/genéticaRESUMEN
Mussels can be affected by environmental contaminants, as non-dioxin-like polychlorinated biphenyls (NDL-PCBs), polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and cadmium (Cd). Moreover, mussels may concentrate human enteric viruses, like noroviruses (NoVGI/GII), astrovirus (AsV) and rotavirus (RV). Herein, to establish a relationship between environmental and viral contamination, with the aim to ensure human food safety, both chemical and microbiological analysis were carried out in mussels Mytilus galloprovincialis, farmed in Campania region (Italy). Chemical analysis revealed ranges below the European maximum limits, and were: ∑6 NDL-PCBs (28, 52, 101, 138, 153, 180) 0.579-16.857â¯ngâ¯g-1 wet weight (ww); BaP LOQ (<0.2⯵gâ¯kg-1)-â¯2.9⯵gâ¯kg-1 ww, and ∑4 PAHs (BaA, CHR, BbFA, BaP) 0.7-23.7⯵gâ¯kg-1 ww; Cd LOQ (<0.005â¯mgâ¯kg-1)-â¯0.078â¯mgâ¯kg-1 ww. In addition, mussels exhibited a prevalence of NoVGI (18%), NoVGII (43%), AsV (40%), RV (30%) and the presence of more than one viruses resulted in about 35%. Overall, a simultaneous contamination, both chemical and viral, was found in 62% of samples. Interestingly, virus-positive mussels showed levels of chemicals higher than negative ones.
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Mytilus/metabolismo , Contaminantes Químicos del Agua/metabolismo , Animales , Monitoreo del Ambiente , Humanos , Italia , Mytilus/virología , Bifenilos Policlorados/metabolismo , Hidrocarburos Policíclicos Aromáticos/metabolismo , VirusRESUMEN
Metagenomic analysis revealed the presence of porcine parvovirus 3 (PPV3) in the pool of the internal organs of a wild boar found dead in Southern Italy. Phylogenetic analysis based on the complete coding sequences showed that the newly detected virus is most closely related to those found also in wild boars in Romania during 2010-2011. Even though the death could not be associated with this virus, PPV3 could have contributed to lowering the host's immunological defences.
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Metagenómica/métodos , Parvovirus Porcino/genética , Sus scrofa , Enfermedades de los Porcinos/virología , Animales , Genoma Viral , Italia/epidemiología , Filogenia , Porcinos , Enfermedades de los Porcinos/epidemiologíaRESUMEN
The complete and near-complete genome sequences (7206 nt and 7229 nt) of two wild boar HEV strains detected in Southern Italy were obtained by the next generation sequencing. Phylogenetic analysis and p distance comparisons of one of the strains with HEV-3 reference subtype strains confirmed the detection of a subtype 3i (p distance = 0.110) strain in wild boar, never detected in Italy either in wild boar or pigs. The sequence of the second strain was not classifiable in any of the subtypes defined to date, showing a p distance > 0.138 and a low nucleotide identity with all HEV reference strains. The virus may represent a novel subtype, with a low relationship to other strains of genotype 3 detected in wild boar, pigs, or humans in Europe. This result suggests the circulation in Italy of an emerging or uncommon HEV strain. Sequencing followed by phylogenetic analyses of the complete HEV coding regions are important tools for understanding the evolutionary and epidemiological dynamics underlying the wide genetic diversity of HEV strains.
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Genotipo , Virus de la Hepatitis E/clasificación , Virus de la Hepatitis E/genética , Hepatitis E/veterinaria , Filogenia , Enfermedades de los Porcinos/virología , Animales , Genoma Viral , Italia , Sus scrofa , PorcinosRESUMEN
Canine coronavirus (CCoV) can produce a self-limited enteric disease in dogs but, because of notable biological plasticity of coronaviruses (CoVs), numerous mutations as well as recombination events happen leading to the emergence of variants often more dangerous for both animals and humans. Indeed, the emergence of new canine-feline recombinant alphacoronaviruses, recently isolated from humans, highlight the cross-species transmission potential of CoVs. Consequently, new effective antiviral agents are required to treat CoV infections. Among the candidates for the development of drugs against CoVs infection, fungal secondary metabolites (SMs) represent an important source to investigate. Herein, antiviral ability of 6-pentyl-α-pyrone (6 PP), a SM obtained by Trichoderma atroviride, was assessed against CCoV. During in vitro infection, nontoxic concentration of 6 PP significantly increased cell viability, reduced morphological signs of cell death, and inhibited viral replication of CCoV. In addition, we found a noticeable lessening in the expression of aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR), a strategic modulator of CoVs infection. Overall, due to the variety of their chemical and biological properties, fungal SMs can decrease the replication of CoVs, thus identifying a suitable in vitro model to screen for potential drugs against CoVs, using a reference strain of CCoV (S/378), non-pathogenic for humans.
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Rhodococcus equi is a terrestrial bacterium and a common pathogen in foals (Equus caballus), in which causes pneumonia. This report describes for the first time the infection caused by R. equi in a common bottlenose dolphin (Tursiops truncatus) stranded in the Calabrian coast, Italy. The post mortem examination of the animal revealed lesions in lung and colon. The animal was also positive to dolphin morbillivirus. The histological study showed lesions attributable to R. equi infection, such as pyogranulomatous bacterial pneumonia and chronic granulomatous colitis. Whole genome sequencing of the isolated strain confirmed its identification as R. equi.
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Infecciones por Actinomycetales , Delfín Mular , Rhodococcus equi , Animales , Rhodococcus equi/aislamiento & purificación , Rhodococcus equi/genética , Infecciones por Actinomycetales/veterinaria , Infecciones por Actinomycetales/microbiología , Delfín Mular/microbiología , Italia , MasculinoRESUMEN
We investigated the occurrence of eight potential zoonotic viruses in 91 exotic companion mammals from pet shops in southern Italy via real-time PCR and end-point PCR. The animals were screened for aichivirus, sapovirus, astrovirus, hepatitis A, noroviruses (GI and GII), rotavirus, circovirus, and SARS-CoV-2. Among the nine species of exotic pets studied, only one rat tested positive for aichivirus. The high sequence similarity to a murine kobuvirus-1 strain previously identified in China suggests that the virus may have been introduced into Italy through the importation of animals from Asia. Since exotic companion mammals live in close contact with humans, continuous sanitary monitoring is crucial to prevent the spread of new pathogens among domestic animals and humans. Further investigations on detecting and typing zoonotic viruses are needed to identify emerging and re-emerging viruses to safeguard public health.
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Recent studies have demonstrated that 3-O-methylfunicone (OMF), a fungal secondary metabolite from Talaromyces pinophilus belonging to the class of funicone-like compounds, has antiviral activity against canine coronaviruses (CCoV), which causes enteritis in dogs. Herein, we selected two additional funicone-like compounds named vermistatin (VER) and penisimplicissin (PS) and investigated their inhibitory activity towards CCoV infection. Thus, both compounds have been tested for their cytotoxicity and for antiviral activity against CCoV in A72 cells, a fibrosarcoma cell line suitable for investigating CCoV. Our findings showed an increase in cell viability, with an improvement of morphological features in CCoV-infected cells at the non-toxic doses of 1 µM for VER and 0.5 µM for PS. In addition, we observed that these compounds caused a strong inhibition in the expression of the aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR), a ligand-activated transcription factor which is activated during CCoV infection. Our results also showed the alkalinization of lysosomes in the presence of VER or PS, which may be involved in the observed antiviral activities.
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Introduction: Feline immunodeficiency virus (FIV) and feline leukemia virus (FeLV) are well-known retroviruses causing important infections in domestic cats worldwide. The goal of this study was to determine the prevalence of FeLV and FIV infections in cat living indoor and outdoor in southern Italy. Methods: The survey was conducted on 1322 stray and owned cats from the regions of Campania, Basilicata, and Calabria. It was carried out over a 10-year period to obtain a more realistic picture of the prevalence of these retroviral diseases in the country. FIV and FeLV status was determined by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) using a commercial kit (SNAP Combo Plus FeLV/FIV, IDEXX). Risk factors were analysed by logistic regression. Results and Discussion: The results showed that 101/1322 (7.64%) cats were positive for FeLV antigen and 110/1322 (8.32%) cats were positive for FIV antibody. Twenty-six of the 1322 cats (1.97%) were positive for both FIV and FeLV infection. Our results are similar to those published in recent studies in Europe. A statistically significant association (p < 0.05) was found between year, province, region, lifestyle and risk of FeLV infection. FIV positivity was instead statistically associated only with year and lifestyle.
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Systematic wildlife surveillance is important to aid the prevention of zoonotic infections that jeopardize human health and undermine biodiversity. Toxoplasma gondii is an opportunistic zoonotic protozoan that can infect all endothermic vertebrates, causing severe disease in immunocompromised humans and cases of congenital transmission. Humans can be infected by ingestion of raw meat containing bradyzoites or water contaminated by oocysts. In our study, we assessed the potential circulation of Toxoplasma gondii in wild mammals by performing surveillance in the Campania region (southern Italy) and surveyed its presence from 2020 to 2022 within the framework of the Regional Plans for Wildlife Surveillance. In detail, 211 individuals belonging to five wild mammals (wolf, fox, wild boar, badger, and roe deer) underwent necropsy and the organs were analyzed by real-time PCR for the detection of the parasite. Toxoplasma gondii was found in 21.8% (46/211) of the subjects examined. No statistically significant differences were noticed between the prevalence and the host's trophic level or age, rejecting the hypotheses that Toxoplasma gondii will have a higher prevalence in top predators and adult individuals, respectively. Our work emphasized the high circulation of Toxoplasma gondii in wildlife and remarked on the critical role of anthropized areas where domestic cats and wildlife may come into contact, urging a systematic surveillance.
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Bovine alphaherpesvirus 1 (BoAHV-1), the pathogen causing Infectious Bovine Rhinotracheitis (IBR) and predisposing to polymicrobial infections in cattle, provokes farm economic losses and trading restrictions in the world. However, nontoxic antiviral agents for BoAHV-1 infection are still unavailable, but plant extracts, such as flavonoid derivatives possess activity against BoAHV-1. Taurisolo®, a nutraceutical produced by Aglianico grape pomace, has recently shown promising antiviral activity. Herein, the potential activity of Taurisolo® during BoAHV-1 infection in Madin Darby bovine kidney (MDBK) cells was tested. Taurisolo® enhanced cell viability and reduced morphological death signs in BoAHV-1-infected cells. Moreover, Taurisolo® influenced the expression of bICP0, the key regulatory protein of BoAHV-1, and it strongly diminished virus yield. These effects were associated with an up-regulation of aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR), a transcription factor involved in microbial metabolism and immune response. In conclusion, our findings indicate that Taurisolo® may represent a potential antiviral agent against BoAHV-1 infection. Noteworthy, AhR could be involved in the observed effects and become a new target in antiviral therapy.
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The aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR) is a ligand-activated transcription factor that interacts with substrates, including microbial metabolites. Recent advances reveal that AhR is involved in the host response to coronaviruses (CoVs) infection. Particularly, AhR antagonists decrease the expression of angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) via AhR up-regulation, resulting in suppression of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2) infection in mammalian cells. Herein, we report that AhR is expressed in canine fibrosarcoma (A72) cells, where it is considerably activated by infection with genotype II of canine coronavirus (CCoV-II). The pharmacological inhibition of AhR, by CH223191, suppressed cell death signs and increased cell viability. Furthermore, the AhR antagonist induced a meaningful decline in virus yield, accompanied by the inhibition of the expression of viral nuclear protein (NP). Fascinatingly, during CCoV infection, a novel co-expression of NP and AhR expression was found. Taken together, our preliminary findings show that infection with CCoV activates AhR, and pharmacologic AhR inhibition reduces CCoV replication, identifying AhR as a possible candidate target for CCoV antiviral therapy.
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COVID-19 , Coronavirus Canino , Perros , Animales , Receptores de Hidrocarburo de Aril/genética , Receptores de Hidrocarburo de Aril/metabolismo , SARS-CoV-2 , Genotipo , MamíferosRESUMEN
One serious concern associated with the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic is that the virus might spill back from humans to wildlife, which would render some animal species reservoirs of the human virus. We assessed the potential circulation of SARS-CoV-2 caused by reverse infection from humans to bats, by performing bat surveillance from different sites in Central-Southern Italy. We restricted our survey to sampling techniques that are minimally invasive and can therefore be broadly applied by non-medical operators such as bat workers. We collected 240 droppings or saliva from 129 bats and tested them using specific and general primers for SARS-CoV-2 and coronaviruses, respectively. All samples (127 nasal swabs and 113 faecal droppings) were negative for SARS-CoV-2, and these results were confirmed by testing the samples with the Droplet Digital PCR. Additionally, pancoronavirus end-point RT-PCR was performed, and no sample showed specific bands. This outcome is a first step towards a better understanding of the reverse transmission of this virus to bats. Although the occurrence of a reverse zoonotic pattern can only be fully established by serological testing, the latter might represent an in-depth follow-up to a broad-scale preliminary assessment performed with our approach. We encourage the systematic surveillance of bats to help prevent reverse zoonotic episodes that would jeopardize human health, as well as biodiversity conservation and management.
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Bovine herpesvirus type-1 (BoHV-1) is a widespread pathogen that provokes infectious rhinotracheitis and polymicrobial infections in cattle, resulting in serious economic losses to the farm animal industry and trade restrictions. To date, non-toxic active drugs against BoHV-1 are not available. The exploitation of bioactive properties of microbial products is of great pharmaceutical interest. In fact, fungi are a promising source of novel drugs with a broad spectrum of activities and functions, including antiviral properties. Hence, the potential antiviral properties of 3-O-methylfunicone (OMF), a secondary metabolite produced by Talaromyces pinophilus, were evaluated on BoHV-1. In this study, during BoHV-1 infection in bovine cells (MDBK), the non-toxic concentration of 5 µM OMF considerably reduced signs of cell death and increased cell proliferation. Furthermore, OMF significantly decreased the virus titer as well as the cytopathic effect and strongly inhibited the expression of bICP0, the major regulatory protein in the BoHV-1 lytic cycle. These findings were accompanied by a considerable up-regulation in the expression of the aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR), a multifunctional transcription factor also linked to the host's response to a herpesvirus infection. Overall, our results suggest that by involving AhR, OMF shows potential against a BoHV-1 infection.
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Canine coronavirus (CCoV), an alphacoronavirus, may cause self-limiting enteric disease in dogs, especially in puppies. The noteworthy plasticity of coronaviruses (CoVs) occurs through mutation and recombination processes, which sometimes generate new dangerous variants. The ongoing SARS-CoV-2 pandemic and the isolation of a novel canine-feline recombinant alphacoronavirus from humans emphasizes the cross-species transmission ability of CoVs. In this context, exploring antiviral compounds is essential to find new tools for fighting against CoVs infections. Fungi produce secondary metabolites, which are often developed as antibiotics, fungicides, hormones, and plant growth regulators. Previous examinations of benzo-γ-pyrone 3-O-methylfunicone (OMF), obtained from Talaromyces pinophilus, showed that it reduces the infectivity of hepatitis C virus and bovine herpesvirus 1. Based on this evidence, this study evaluated the antiviral ability of OMF against CCoV infection in a canine fibrosarcoma (A72) cell line. During CCoV infection, a non-toxic dose of OMF markedly increased features of cell viability. Moreover, OMF induced a significant reduction in virus yield in the presence of an intense downregulation of the viral nucleocapsid protein (NP). These findings occurred in the presence of a marked reduction in the aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR) expression. Taken together, preliminary findings suggest that OMF inhibiting AhR shows promising activity against CCoV infection.
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This study aims to investigate the presence of canine distemper virus (CDV) infection in 949 autochthonous or illegally imported dogs from Southern Italy, over a period of eight years (2014-2021). CDV RNA was detected in 6.8% (65/949) of the animals tested, with no detection of CDV in dogs sampled in 2020-2021. The frequency of CDV detection was higher in imported dogs (19/103, 18.3%) with respect to stray (27/365, 7.4%) and household dogs (19/481, 3.9%). On sequence and phylogenetic analyses of selected strains, the analyzed viruses belonged to the Arctic clade, which has already been reported in Italy and in Europe. The results of our study may suggest a reduction of CDV circulation in Southern Italy, while at the same time highlighting the need for strict controls on dog importation, in order to prevent the introduction of viruses from endemic countries.
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From 2019 to 2021, a retrospective molecular study was conducted in the Campania region (southern Italy) to determine the prevalence of viral diseases in domestic cats. A total of 328 dead animals were analyzed by Real-Time PCR for the presence of feline panleukopenia virus (FPV), feline leukemia virus (FeLV), feline enteric coronavirus (FCoV), rotavirus (RVA), feline herpesvirus type 1 (FHV-1), and feline calicivirus (FCV). The possible presence of SARS-CoV-2 was also investigated by Real-Time PCR. The cats included in this study were specifically sourced and referred by local veterinarians and local authorities to the Zooprofilactic Experimental Institute of Southern Italy (IZSM) for pathological evaluation. The samples consisted of owners, catteries, and stray cats. Results revealed: 73.5% positive cats for FPV (189/257), 23.6% for FeLV (21/89), 21.5% for FCoV (56/266), 11.4% for RVA (16/140), 9.05% for FeHV-1 (21/232), and 7.04 for FCV (15/213). In contrast, SARS-CoV-2 was never detected. FPV was more prevalent in winter (p = 0.0027). FCoV FHV-1, FCV, and RVA predominated in autumn, whereas FeLV predominated in summer. As expected, viral infections were found more frequently in outdoor and shelter cats than in indoor ones, although no statistical association was found between animal lifestyle and viral presence. The study showed a high prevalence of FPV, FeLV, and FCoV and a moderate prevalence of RVA, FHV-1, and FCV. Moreover, the prevalence of these pathogens varied among the cat populations investigated.
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COVID-19 , Calicivirus Felino , Coronavirus Felino , Virosis , Gatos , Animales , Estudios Retrospectivos , Prevalencia , Anticuerpos Antivirales , SARS-CoV-2/genética , Virus de la Panleucopenia Felina , Virus de la Leucemia Felina , Coronavirus Felino/genética , Virosis/veterinariaRESUMEN
A six-year study on water buffaloes from the Campania Region (Southern Italy) was conducted to evaluate the presence of bovine/bubaline herpesviruses in cases of abortion. A total of 244 buffalo foetuses were analysed by real-time PCR to detect the presence of: bovine alphaherpesvirus 1(BoHV-1), bubaline alphaherpesvirus 1 (BuHV-1), bovine alphaherpesvirus 2 (BuHV-2), and bovine gammaherpesvirus 4 (BoHV-4). The foetuses of 14 water buffaloes that showed abortions were positive for BuHV-1 (4 animals) and/or BoHV-4 (11 animals), with one of these cases showing co-infection with BuHV-1 and BoHV-4. This study reports the first identification of BoHV-4 in water buffaloes. Cases of abortion were analysed using both molecular and cultural assays for the presence of other pathogens. In nearly all the abortion cases positive for BoHV-4, the virus was identified as a co-infecting agent together with other microorganisms, whereas in two abortion cases, it was the only pathogen found.