COVID-19 medical care direct costs during the first year of pandemic in a hospital converted for increasing bed capacity.

BACKGROUND: COVID-19 health emergency caused an increase in the demand for hospitalization and high costs for the health system. OBJECTIVE: To estimate COVID-19 care direct costs from the perspective of the healthcare provider in a secondary care hospital that underwent conversion during the first year of health emergency. MATERIAL AND METHODS: Retrospective, observational study. Information on quantities of goods and services was obtained from the SINOLAVE and CVOED platforms and from hospital administrative sources. Four cost groups were defined and estimated with 2021 unit prices in US dollars. RESULTS: Mean hospital length of stay (n = 3,241 patients) was 10.8 ± 8.2 days. Average cost of care per patient was USD 6,557 ± 4,997. Respiratory therapy with assisted mechanical ventilation was used by 13% of patients. CONCLUSIONS: The costs of COVID-19 medical care represent a large amount of resources. Most part of the costs (95%) were derived from hospital stay, respiratory therapy without assisted mechanical ventilation and costs related to personal protective equipment, hygiene, infrastructure adaptation and payments to medical personnel.

ANTECEDENTES: La emergencia sanitaria por COVID-19 causó un aumento de la demanda por hospitalización y costos elevados para el sistema de salud. OBJETIVO: Estimar los costos directos de la atención por COVID-19 desde la perspectiva del proveedor de servicios en un hospital de segundo nivel que fue reconvertido durante el primer año de la emergencia sanitaria. MATERIAL Y MÉTODOS: Estudio observacional retrospectivo. La información sobre cantidades de bienes y servicios se obtuvo de los sistemas de información SINOLAVE y CVOED, así como de fuentes administrativas del hospital. Se definieron cuatro grupos de costos y se valoraron en dólares norteamericanos con precios unitarios de 2021. RESULTADOS: La duración promedio de la estancia hospitalaria (n = 3241 pacientes) fue de 10.8 ± 8.2 días. El costo promedio de la atención por paciente fue de USD 6 557 ± 4 997. La terapia respiratoria con ventilación mecánica asistida fue utilizada por 13 % de los pacientes. CONCLUSIONES: Los costos médicos de atención por COVID-19 representaron una gran cantidad de recursos. La mayor parte de los costos (95 %) se derivó de estancia hospitalaria, terapia respiratoria sin ventilación mecánica asistida, así como de costos relacionados con equipo de protección personal, higiene, adecuación a la infraestructura y pagos al personal médico.

Social inequality in sexual and reproductive health in Ecuador: an analysis of gaps by levels of provincial poverty 2009-2015.

BACKGROUND: Adequate access to sexual and reproductive health services is associated with better results. Analyzing the differences in access and outcomes of sexual and reproductive health (SRH) by share of poverty at the regional level makes it possible to measure the magnitude of the challenge of inequity. This paper aims to estimate the magnitude of health inequality in SRH in Ecuador for the period 2009-2015. METHODS: This study analyzed health inequalities in sexual and reproductive health indicators (obstetric and abortion complications, caesarean and home deliveries, adolescent fertility, and maternal mortality) for 2009 and 2015 comparing provinces in Ecuador. The absolute and relative gaps were estimated between provinces grouped by the percentage of individuals in multidimensional poverty; the slope index of inequality and the relative index of inequality were estimated as measures of gradient; and finally, the concentration index was also estimated. RESULTS: The analysis identified that obstetric complications, abortion complications, and cesareans have tended to increase from 2009 to 2015, without relevant differences between provinces ordered by poverty. Adolescent fertility decreased in the country as well as the inequality in its distribution among provinces: the CI was - 0.046 in 2015, down from - 0.084 in 2009. Home deliveries as a ratio of total deliveries have a decreasing trend with mixed results in terms of inequality: while there is a decrease in the absolute gap from - 211.06 to 184.4 between 2009 and 2015, the concentration index increased from - 0.331 to - 0.496. Finally, the maternal mortality rate increased in the period, also with greater inequality: from an absolute gap of - 39.30 in 2019, up to - 46.7 in 2015. In the same direction, the CI went from - 0.127 to - 0.174. CONCLUSIONS: Ecuador faces major challenges in terms of both levels and inequalities in SRH outcomes and access to services. These inequalities related to poverty highlight the persistence of social inequities in the country. These health inequalities affect the wellbeing of Ecuadorian women but they are amendable. There is a need for pro-equity interventions, with stronger efforts in areas (provinces) with larger socioeconomic vulnerabilities.

[Population mobility and HIV/AIDS in Central America and Mexico]. / Movilidad poblacional y VIH/sida en Centroamérica y México.

OBJECTIVE: Estimate the magnitude of the association between population mobility, measured by net migration rate (NMR), and HIV prevalence in Central America and Mexico. METHODS: Using time series models, based on public information from UNAIDS, UNDP, ECLAC, and the World Bank for the period 1990-2009, this association was studied in individuals aged 15-49 years, and adjusted for socioeconomic factors (education, unemployment, life expectancy, and income). RESULTS: NMR was negative in all countries except Costa Rica and Panama. Unadjusted results of the model show a positive association and that NMR can explain 6% of recorded HIV prevalence. When socioeconomic cofactors are included by country (education, health, and income), the magnitude increases to 9% (P<0.05). NMR, even when adjusted for socioeconomic factors, explains some of recorded HIV prevalence. All socioeconomic indicators show improvements in Central America and Mexico, although large gaps persist among countries. CONCLUSIONS: The modest association observed between population mobility and HIV prevalence is conditioned by the socioeconomic status of the countries studied. Information availability limited the study's ability to establish the existence of this association with greater certainty. Accordingly, based on available information, it is not possible to affirm that migration plays a key role in the spread of HIV.

Technical Efficiency of Mexico's Public Health System in the Delivery of Obstetric Care, during 2012-2018.

The objective of this study was to evaluate the technical efficiency of Mexico's public health system in the delivery of obstetric care from 2012 to 2018. A multi-stage quantitative study of the public health institutions responsible for 95% of the system's obstetric services was conducted using data envelopment analysis. The efficiency of state-level productive units (decision-making units, or DMUs) was calculated and juxtaposed with the DMUs' maximum (0.82) and minimum (0.22) scores. Using the outcomes of the initial stage, the average technical efficiency of each institution at the national level was estimated and compared. The results were also utilized to estimate and compare the average efficiency of each state-level health system based on economic characteristics (state GDP per capita). Outputs included prenatal visits and deliveries, while inputs comprised gynecologists, exam rooms, and delivery rooms. Institutional efficiency ranged from 0.16 to 0.82, with an average of 0.417. The Ministry of Health (0.82) and the Mexican Social Security Institute (0.747) exhibited the highest efficiency scores, while the remaining institutions (Institute for Social Security and Services for State Workers [ISSSTE]; Mexican Petroleum [PEMEX]; the Secretary of National Defense [SEDENA]; and the Navy [SEMAR]) scored below the health system average. Of the 153 DMUs, 20% surpassed the maximum (0.82) and 40.6% fell below the minimum (0.22). These findings indicate that 80% of DMUs have unused operational capacity that could be utilized to enhance technical efficiency. No relationship was found between efficiency and the GDP of Mexico's 32 politico-administrative divisions. The efficiency gap between institutions (0.66) shows that while some DMUs are saturated (exhibiting high efficiency scores), the majority have unused operational capacity. Leveraging this untapped capacity could address the needs of vulnerable populations facing restricted access due to health system fragmentation.

[Factors associated with the seeking of legal induced abortion services in Mexico City in 2010]. / Factores asociados con la búsqueda del servicio de interrupción legal del embarazo en la Ciudad de México, 2010.

OBJECTIVE: To identify factors associated with the seeking of the legal-interruption-pregnancy (LIP) services in Mexico City. MATERIALS AND METHODS: We used a case-control design. Users who utilized the LIP were defined as cases, while users of the antenatal care service with gestational age 13 or more weeks and who reported having an unwanted pregnancy were defined as controls. Logistic regressions were fitted to estimate odds ratios. RESULTS: Higher level of education (OR=1.47, 95% CI:1.04-2.07), women's occupation (being student OR=7.31, 95% CI:1.58-33.95; worker OR=13.43, 95% CI:2.04-88.54), and number of previous abortions (OR=11.41, 95% CI:1.65-79.07) were identified as factors associated with the lookup of LIP. CONCLUSIONS: In Mexico City context, empowered women with a higher level of education, or having a work activity are the users of LIP services. Strategies for improving access of women with low empowerment conditions are needed.

[Injuries in emergency rooms of urban areas in Mexico: prevalence and severity]. / Atención de lesiones por tipo de causa externa en salas de urgencia en tres ciudades de México: composición, frecuencia y gravedad.

OBJECTIVE: To identify frequency and severity of injuries by type of external cause in people attending emergency services for medical attention. MATERIAL AND METHODS: Cross-sectional study held in the cities of Guadalajara, Colima and Mexico City, from September 2007 to February 2008. All people requiring emergency medical attention due to injuries were included. VARIABLES: sex, age, anatomical area of the injury, type of injury, external cause, type of aggressor and severity according to the abbreviated injury scale. Statistical analysis was univariate simple and multivariate. RESULTS: 26.3% of the emergency medical attention was due to injuries, with the main cause being falls (49.3%). Individuals from 15 to 44 years (55.8%) reported a higher frequency, while those over 60 years presented the most serious injuries. Associated variables to severity were interpersonal aggression (OR 6.7, IC 95% 4.20-10.69) and road traffic injuries (OR 3.00, IC 95% 1.72-5.23). Conclusions. Accidental and intentional injuries represent an important demand of emergency medical attention; with interpersonal aggression and road traffic injuries being responsible for the highest number of serious injuries.

[Economic cost of pregnancy care attributable to the failure of Mexico's teenage pregnancy prevention policy]. / Costo económico de atención de embarazos atribuibles a la falla de la política de prevención del embarazo adolescente en México.

The objective was to estimate the direct medical cost of pregnancy care attributable to the failure of Mexico's teenage pregnancy prevention policy. From the provider's perspective, this economic study estimated the mean cost of prenatal care, childbirth, puerperium, abortion and complications. To quantify the costs attributable to policy failure, three scenarios were constructed: (a) total number of pregnancies; (b) number of pregnancies above the target; (c) number of unwanted pregnancies. The cost of providing contraceptive methods was also estimated and the characteristics of pregnant adolescents were described. Of the adolescents (n = 5,477,027), 30.2% were sexually active; 46.8% used contraception; 44.1% had become pregnant and 9.1% had an abortion. Most pregnant women (65%) attended secondary school or under; 30% dropped out of school; 72.5% lived with a partner; 72.3% had complications. The mean cost of pregnancy care was estimated at USD 2,210.55 and the mean cost of providing contraceptives at USD 64.95. The total cost of policy failure was estimated for each scenario (in millions): (a) USD 1,614.39, (b) USD 876.61 and (c) USD 171.50, respectively; whereas the annual cost of providing contraceptives in each scenario was estimated in: (a) USD 47.43, (b) USD 25.76 and (c) USD 5.04. The failure of the policy is expressed in the high frequency of pregnancy in low-income adolescents and in high costs for the health system. The provision of contraceptives is 34 times cheaper than pregnancy care and could, together with improved living conditions, contribute to reduce the frequency of adolescent pregnancies.

El objetivo fue estimar el costo médico directo de la atención a embarazos atribuibles a la falla en la política de prevención de embarazos adolescentes en México. Estudio económico que estimó, desde la perspectiva del proveedor, el costo medio de atención prenatal, parto, puerperio, aborto y complicaciones. Para cuantificar los costos atribuibles a la falla de la política, se construyeron tres escenarios: (a) embarazos totales; (b) embarazos por arriba de la meta; (c) embarazos no deseados. También se estimó el costo de proveer anticonceptivos y se describieron características de las adolescentes embarazadas. De las adolescentes (n = 5.477.027), 30,2% había iniciado vida sexual; 46,8% usaba anticonceptivo; 44,1% se había embarazado y 9,1% abortó. La mayoría de embarazadas (65%) estudió secundaria o menos; 30% abandonó la escuela; 72,5% vivían en pareja; 72,3% presentó complicaciones. El costo medio de atención del embarazo se estimó en USD 2.210,55 y el de proveer anticonceptivos en USD 64,95. El costo total por la falla de la política se estimó para cada escenario (en millones): (a) USD 1.614,39, (b) USD 876,61 y (c) USD 171,50, respectivamente; mientras que el costo anual de proveer anticonceptivos en cada escenario se estimó en: (a) USD 47,43, (b) USD 25,76 y (c) USD 5,04. La falla de la política se expresa en alta frecuencia de embarazo en adolescentes de bajos ingresos y en altos costos para el sistema de salud. La provisión de anticonceptivos es 34 veces más barata que la atención de embarazos y podría, aunado al mejoramiento de las condiciones de vida, contribuir a disminuir la frecuencia de embarazos en adolescentes.

O objetivo deste estudo foi estimar os custos médicos diretos da assistência à gravidez relacionados ao fracasso da política de prevenção à gravidez na adolescência no México. Este estudo econômico avaliou, a partir da perspectiva da prestação de serviços, os custos médios do pré-natal, parto, puerpério, aborto e complicações da gravidez na adolescência. Para quantificar os custos relacionados ao fracasso dessa política de assistência, foram analisados três cenários: (a) total das gestações; (b) gravidez acima da média; (c) gravidez indesejada. Também foi estimado o custo do fornecimento de anticoncepcionais e descritas as características da gravidez na adolescência. Do total de adolescentes grávidas (n = 5.477.027), 30,2% tinham iniciado a vida sexual; 46,8% usavam métodos anticoncepcionais; 44,1% engravidaram e 9,1% abortaram. A maioria das grávidas (65%) tinha o ensino médio completo ou nível de escolaridade inferior; 30% abandonaram a escola; 72,5% moravam com o companheiro; e 72,3% apresentaram complicações. O custo médio da assistência à gravidez foi estimado em USD 2.210,55, e o do fornecimento de anticoncepcionais em USD 64,95. O custo total do fracasso dessa política foi estimado para cada cenário (em milhões): (a) USD 1.614,39, (b) USD 876,61 e (c) USD 171,50, respectivamente; enquanto o custo anual do fornecimento de contraceptivos em cada cenário foi: (a) USD 47,43, (b) USD 25,76 e (c) USD 5,04. O fracasso dessa política esteve relacionado à alta frequência de gravidez em adolescentes de baixa renda e aos altos custos para o sistema de saúde. A oferta de anticoncepcionais é 34 vezes mais barata do que a assistência à gravidez e pode contribuir para a redução da gravidez na adolescência, junto com uma melhoria nas condições de vida dessa população.

Preoperative risk assessment and spirometry is a cost-effective strategy to reduce post-operative complications and mortality in Mexico.

AIM: Combining preoperative spirometry with the Assess Respiratory Risk in Surgical Patients in Catalunia (ARISCAT) risk scale can reduce post-operative complications and improve patient survival. This study aimed to assess the cost-effectiveness of performing spirometry or not in conjunction with the ARISCAT scale, to reduce post-operative complications and improve survival among adult patients undergoing elective surgery in Mexico. METHODS: A cost-effectiveness analysis (CEA) was performed to compare the specific cost and health outcomes associated with the combined use of the ARISCAT scale and preoperative spirometry (Group 1), and the use of the ARISCAT scale without preoperative spirometry (Group 2). The health outcomes evaluated were post-operative complications and survival. The perspective was from the health care provider (Hospital General de México) and direct medical costs were reported in 2019 US dollars. A decision tree with a time horizon of eight months was used for each health outcome and ARISCAT risk level. RESULTS: The combined use of the ARISCAT scale and spirometry is more cost-effective for reducing post-operative complications in the low and moderate-risk levels and is cost-saving in the high-risk level, than use of the ARISCAT scale without spirometry. To improve patient survival, ARISCAT and spirometry are also more cost-effective at the moderate risk level, and cost-saving for high-risk patients, than using the ARISCAT scale alone. CONCLUSIONS: The use of preoperative spirometry among patients with a high ARISCAT risk level was cost-saving, reduced post-operative complications, and improved survival. Our findings indicate an urgent need to implement spirometry as part of preoperative care in Mexico, which is already the standard of care in other countries.

Ten-year hospitalization trends in Mexico: Examining the profile of national and transient and migrants.

Aim: In Mexico, as in other societies, migrants are seen as over-users of health services. However, the extent, distribution, and trends of use over time are unknown. Evidence is needed to inform health policies and improve health services for foreign patients. The objective of this study was to examine factors associated with the distribution and trends of Mexican and foreign resident hospitalizations in Mexican public hospitals from 2010 to 2020. Methods: A graphical and statistical analysis (descriptive and correlational) of discharge trends in public hospitals was carried out. Hospitalization trends were analyzed by country of habitual residence (Mexico, US, Central and South America, and Other Continents), age, sex, primary discharge category, and region of service delivery. Adjusted Poisson modeling was used to examine the factors associated with annual hospitalizations of Mexican and foreign residents. Results: Between 2010 and 2020, there were 26,780,808 hospitalizations in Mexican public hospitals. Of these, 0.05% were of foreign residents. Hospitalizations for Mexican residents remained stable from 2010 to 2019, while those for foreign residents trended upward over the same period. In 2020, hospitalizations of Mexican residents fell by 36.6%, while foreign resident hospitalizations fell by 348.8%. The distribution of hospitalizations by sex was higher among females for all categories of habitual residence, except among US residents. Obstetric discharges were the most common reason for hospitalization among Mexican residents (42.45%), Central and South American residents (42.24%), and residents from Other Continents (13.73%). The average hospital stay was 2 days. Poisson regression confirmed these results, showing that hospitalizations was higher among women (except among foreign residents) and in the ≤ 17 age group. Poisson modeling also showed that trauma injury was the leading cause of discharge for foreign residents after obstetric causes. Discussion: It is unlikely the upward trend in hospitalizations among foreign residents in Mexico from 2010 to 2019 affected the Mexican public health system, given the small proportion (0.05%) of hospitalizations and the brief length of hospital stay. The increased number of hospitalizations during the study period may be explained by local and national measures to facilitate foreign residents' access to hospital services, while the decrease in hospital utilization in 2020 is likely associated with COVID-19. Geographic location and the most frequent primary discharge categories of hospitalizations within each population could provide evidence for modifications to public health policy in Mexico.

[Cost-effectiveness of public health practices: a literature review of public health interventions from the Mesoamerican Health Initiative]. / Costo-efectividad de prácticas en salud pública: revisión bibliográfica de las intervenciones de la Iniciativa Mesoamericana de Salud.

OBJECTIVE: Present and analyze cost-effectiveness information of public health interventions proposed by the Mesoamerican Health Initiative in child nutrition, vaccination, malaria, dengue, and maternal, neonatal, and reproductive health. MATERIAL AND METHODS: A systematic literature review was conducted on cost-effectiveness studies published between January 2000 and August 2009 on interventions related to the health areas previously mentioned. Studies were included if they measured effectiveness in terms of Disability-Adjusted Life Year (DALY) or death averted. RESULTS: Child nutrition and maternal and neonatal health interventions were found to be highly cost-effective (most of them below US$200 per DALY averted for nutritional interventions and US$100 for maternal and neonatal health). For dengue, information on cost-effectiveness was found just for application of larvicides, which resulted in a cost per DALY averted ranking from US$40.79 to US$345.06. Malarial interventions were found to be cost-effective (below US$150 per DALY averted or US$4,000 per death averted within Africa). In the case of pneumococcus and rotavirus vaccination, cost-effectiveness estimates were always above one GDP per capita per DALY averted. CONCLUSIONS: In Mesoamerica there are still important challenges in child nutrition, vaccination, malaria, dengue and maternal, neonatal, and reproductive health, challenges that could be addressed by scaling-up technically feasible and cost-effective interventions.

[Fund for Protection against Catastrophic Expenses]. / El Fondo de Protección contra Gastos Catastróficos: tendencia, evolución y operación.

OBJECTIVE: To document the status of operational and managerial processes of the Fund for Protection against Catastrophic Expenses (FPGC), as well as to describe its evolution, and to explore the relationship between covered diseases and the Mexican health profile. MATERIAL AND METHODS: This is a joint management study, which included a qualitative and a quantitative phase. We conducted semi-structured interviews with key informants. We also analyzed the records of CNPSS, the hospital discharge and mortality data bases. RESULTS: Fifty two percent of the states take twice as long to report and validate the cases. From 2004-2009 the FPGC increased its coverage from 6 to 49 interventions, that means a spending increase of 2 306.4% in nominal terms and 1 659.3% in real terms. The HIV/AIDS was the intervention prioritized with 39.3% and Mexico City had the highest proportion of expenditure (25.1%). A few diseases included in the health profile are covered by the FPGC. CONCLUSIONS: The review of the inclusion criteria of diseases is urgent, so as to cover diseases of epidemiological importance.

[Prevalence of non-fatal road traffic injuries in Mexico: results from ENSANUT 2006]. / Prevalencia de accidentes de tránsito no fatales en México: resultados de la ENSANUT 2006.

OBJECTIVE: To determine non-fatal road traffic injuries (NFRTI) prevalence and its distribution in Mexico. MATERIAL AND METHODS: Data from ENSANUT Survey 2006 were used. Using simple random sampling, one adult, one adolescent and one child were selected in each household, constituting a final sample of 94,197 representing an N of 102,886,482 people. The dependent variable was the prevalence of road traffic injuries (RTI) during the 12 months prior to the survey. RESULTS: The general accident prevalence was 6.0%; 16.7% corresponded to NFRTI. Men in the 20 to 44 age group living in urban areas and with high socioeconomic status had a higher RTI prevalence (p<0.05). Jalisco, Aguascalientes and Sonora were states with the highest prevalence of RTI, while Guerrero, Michoacan and Oaxaca were those with the lowest. CONCLUSIONS: NFRTI are frequent in Mexico and they are concentrated among men in productive ages in urban areas; they are associated with socioeconomic status at the individual level and with the state's development at the population level.

[Direct service costs of diabetes mellitus hospitalisations in the Mexican Institute of Social Security]. / Costos directos de las hospitalizaciones por diabetes mellitus en el Instituto Mexicano del Seguro Social.

OBJECTIVE: To estimate the direct costs related to hospitalizations for diabetes mellitus and its complications in the Mexican Institute of Social Security METHODS: The hospital care costs of patients with diabetes mellitus using diagnosis-related groups in the IMSS (Mexican Institute of Social Security) and the hospital discharges from the corresponding E10-E14 codes for diabetes mellitus were estimated between 2008-2013. Costs were grouped according to demographic characteristics and main condition, and were estimated in US dollars in 2013. RESULTS: 411,302 diabetes mellitus discharges were recorded, representing a cost of $1,563 million. 52.44% of hospital discharges were men and 77.26% were for type 2 diabetes mellitus. The biggest cost was attributed to peripheral circulatory complications (34.84%) and people from 45-64 years of age (47.1%). Discharges decreased by 3.84% and total costs by 1.75% in the period analysed. The complications that caused the biggest cost variations were ketoacidosis (50.7%), ophthalmic (22.6%) and circulatory (18.81%). CONCLUSIONS: Hospital care for diabetes mellitus represents an important financial challenge for the IMSS. The increase in the frequency of hospitalisations in the productive age group, which affects society as a whole, is an even bigger challenge, and suggests the need to strengthen monitoring of diabetics in order to prevent complications that require hospital care.

Costos directos de atención médica por COVID-19 durante el primer año de pandemia en un hospital reconvertido / COVID-19 medical care direct costs during the first year of pandemic in a hospital converted for increasing bed capacity

Resumen Antecedentes: La emergencia sanitaria por COVID-19 causó un aumento de la demanda por hospitalización y costos elevados para el sistema de salud. Objetivo: Estimar los costos directos de la atención por COVID-19 desde la perspectiva del proveedor de servicios en un hospital de segundo nivel que fue reconvertido durante el primer año de la emergencia sanitaria. Material y métodos: Estudio observacional retrospectivo. La información sobre cantidades de bienes y servicios se obtuvo de los sistemas de información SINOLAVE y CVOED, así como de fuentes administrativas del hospital. Se definieron cuatro grupos de costos y se valoraron en dólares norteamericanos con precios unitarios de 2021. Resultados: La duración promedio de la estancia hospitalaria (n = 3241 pacientes) fue de 10.8 ± 8.2 días. El costo promedio de la atención por paciente fue de USD 6 557 ± 4 997. La terapia respiratoria con ventilación mecánica asistida fue utilizada por 13 % de los pacientes. Conclusiones: Los costos médicos de atención por COVID-19 representaron una gran cantidad de recursos. La mayor parte de los costos (95 %) se derivó de estancia hospitalaria, terapia respiratoria sin ventilación mecánica asistida, así como de costos relacionados con equipo de protección personal, higiene, adecuación a la infraestructura y pagos al personal médico.

Abstract Background: COVID-19 health emergency caused an increase in the demand for hospitalization and high costs for the health system. Objective: To estimate COVID-19 care direct costs from the perspective of the healthcare provider in a secondary care hospital that underwent conversion during the first year of health emergency. Material and methods: Retrospective, observational study. Information on quantities of goods and services was obtained from the SINOLAVE and CVOED platforms and from hospital administrative sources. Four cost groups were defined and estimated with 2021 unit prices in US dollars. Results: Mean hospital length of stay (n = 3,241 patients) was 10.8 ± 8.2 days. Average cost of care per patient was USD 6,557 ± 4,997. Respiratory therapy with assisted mechanical ventilation was used by 13% of patients. Conclusions: The costs of COVID-19 medical care represent a large amount of resources. Most part of the costs (95%) were derived from hospital stay, respiratory therapy without assisted mechanical ventilation and costs related to personal protective equipment, hygiene, infrastructure adaptation and payments to medical personnel.

Costo económico de atención de embarazos atribuibles a la falla de la política de prevención del embarazo adolescente en México / Economic cost of pregnancy care attributable to the failure of Mexico's teenage pregnancy prevention policy / Custo econômico da assistência à gravidez atribuível ao fracasso da política de prevenção à gravidez na adolescência no México

El objetivo fue estimar el costo médico directo de la atención a embarazos atribuibles a la falla en la política de prevención de embarazos adolescentes en México. Estudio económico que estimó, desde la perspectiva del proveedor, el costo medio de atención prenatal, parto, puerperio, aborto y complicaciones. Para cuantificar los costos atribuibles a la falla de la política, se construyeron tres escenarios: (a) embarazos totales; (b) embarazos por arriba de la meta; (c) embarazos no deseados. También se estimó el costo de proveer anticonceptivos y se describieron características de las adolescentes embarazadas. De las adolescentes (n = 5.477.027), 30,2% había iniciado vida sexual; 46,8% usaba anticonceptivo; 44,1% se había embarazado y 9,1% abortó. La mayoría de embarazadas (65%) estudió secundaria o menos; 30% abandonó la escuela; 72,5% vivían en pareja; 72,3% presentó complicaciones. El costo medio de atención del embarazo se estimó en USD 2.210,55 y el de proveer anticonceptivos en USD 64,95. El costo total por la falla de la política se estimó para cada escenario (en millones): (a) USD 1.614,39, (b) USD 876,61 y (c) USD 171,50, respectivamente; mientras que el costo anual de proveer anticonceptivos en cada escenario se estimó en: (a) USD 47,43, (b) USD 25,76 y (c) USD 5,04. La falla de la política se expresa en alta frecuencia de embarazo en adolescentes de bajos ingresos y en altos costos para el sistema de salud. La provisión de anticonceptivos es 34 veces más barata que la atención de embarazos y podría, aunado al mejoramiento de las condiciones de vida, contribuir a disminuir la frecuencia de embarazos en adolescentes.

The objective was to estimate the direct medical cost of pregnancy care attributable to the failure of Mexico's teenage pregnancy prevention policy. From the provider's perspective, this economic study estimated the mean cost of prenatal care, childbirth, puerperium, abortion and complications. To quantify the costs attributable to policy failure, three scenarios were constructed: (a) total number of pregnancies; (b) number of pregnancies above the target; (c) number of unwanted pregnancies. The cost of providing contraceptive methods was also estimated and the characteristics of pregnant adolescents were described. Of the adolescents (n = 5,477,027), 30.2% were sexually active; 46.8% used contraception; 44.1% had become pregnant and 9.1% had an abortion. Most pregnant women (65%) attended secondary school or under; 30% dropped out of school; 72.5% lived with a partner; 72.3% had complications. The mean cost of pregnancy care was estimated at USD 2,210.55 and the mean cost of providing contraceptives at USD 64.95. The total cost of policy failure was estimated for each scenario (in millions): (a) USD 1,614.39, (b) USD 876.61 and (c) USD 171.50, respectively; whereas the annual cost of providing contraceptives in each scenario was estimated in: (a) USD 47.43, (b) USD 25.76 and (c) USD 5.04. The failure of the policy is expressed in the high frequency of pregnancy in low-income adolescents and in high costs for the health system. The provision of contraceptives is 34 times cheaper than pregnancy care and could, together with improved living conditions, contribute to reduce the frequency of adolescent pregnancies.

O objetivo deste estudo foi estimar os custos médicos diretos da assistência à gravidez relacionados ao fracasso da política de prevenção à gravidez na adolescência no México. Este estudo econômico avaliou, a partir da perspectiva da prestação de serviços, os custos médios do pré-natal, parto, puerpério, aborto e complicações da gravidez na adolescência. Para quantificar os custos relacionados ao fracasso dessa política de assistência, foram analisados três cenários: (a) total das gestações; (b) gravidez acima da média; (c) gravidez indesejada. Também foi estimado o custo do fornecimento de anticoncepcionais e descritas as características da gravidez na adolescência. Do total de adolescentes grávidas (n = 5.477.027), 30,2% tinham iniciado a vida sexual; 46,8% usavam métodos anticoncepcionais; 44,1% engravidaram e 9,1% abortaram. A maioria das grávidas (65%) tinha o ensino médio completo ou nível de escolaridade inferior; 30% abandonaram a escola; 72,5% moravam com o companheiro; e 72,3% apresentaram complicações. O custo médio da assistência à gravidez foi estimado em USD 2.210,55, e o do fornecimento de anticoncepcionais em USD 64,95. O custo total do fracasso dessa política foi estimado para cada cenário (em milhões): (a) USD 1.614,39, (b) USD 876,61 e (c) USD 171,50, respectivamente; enquanto o custo anual do fornecimento de contraceptivos em cada cenário foi: (a) USD 47,43, (b) USD 25,76 e (c) USD 5,04. O fracasso dessa política esteve relacionado à alta frequência de gravidez em adolescentes de baixa renda e aos altos custos para o sistema de saúde. A oferta de anticoncepcionais é 34 vezes mais barata do que a assistência à gravidez e pode contribuir para a redução da gravidez na adolescência, junto com uma melhoria nas condições de vida dessa população.

Financing Maternal Health and Family Planning: Are We on the Right Track? Evidence from the Reproductive Health Subaccounts in Mexico, 2003-2012.

OBJECTIVE: To analyze whether the changes observed in the level and distribution of resources for maternal health and family planning (MHFP) programs from 2003 to 2012 were consistent with the financial goals of the related policies. MATERIALS AND METHODS: A longitudinal descriptive analysis of the Mexican Reproductive Health Subaccounts 2003-2012 was performed by financing scheme and health function. Financing schemes included social security, government schemes, household out-of-pocket (OOP) payments, and private insurance plans. Functions were preventive care, including family planning, antenatal and puerperium health services, normal and cesarean deliveries, and treatment of complications. Changes in the financial imbalance indicators covered by MHFP policy were tracked: (a) public and OOP expenditures as percentages of total MHFP spending; (b) public expenditure per woman of reproductive age (WoRA, 15-49 years) by financing scheme; (c) public expenditure on treating complications as a percentage of preventive care; and (d) public expenditure on WoRA at state level. Statistical analyses of trends and distributions were performed. RESULTS: Public expenditure on government schemes grew by approximately 300%, and the financial imbalance between populations covered by social security and government schemes decreased. The financial burden on households declined, particularly among households without social security. Expenditure on preventive care grew by 16%, narrowing the financing gap between treatment of complications and preventive care. Finally, public expenditure per WoRA for government schemes nearly doubled at the state level, although considerable disparities persist. CONCLUSIONS: Changes in the level and distribution of MHFP funding from 2003 to 2012 were consistent with the relevant policy goals. However, improving efficiency requires further analysis to ascertain the impact of investments on health outcomes. This, in turn, will require better financial data systems as a precondition for improving the monitoring and accountability functions in Mexico.

Movilidad poblacional y VIH/sida en Centroamérica y México / Population mobility and HIV/AIDS in Central America and Mexico

OBJETIVO: Estimar la magnitud de la asociación entre la movilidad poblacional, medida con la tasa neta de migración (TNM) y la prevalencia de VIH en Centroamérica y México. MÉTODOS: Con modelos de series temporales se analizó dicha asociación en personas de 15 a 49 años de edad, ajustada por factores socioeconómicos (educación, educación, desempleo, esperanza de vida e ingreso) y utilizando información pública de ONUSIDA, el PNUD, la CEPAL y el Banco Mundial para el período 1990-2009. RESULTADOS: La TNM fue negativa en todos los países, excepto en Costa Rica y Panamá. Los resultados no ajustados del modelo muestran una asociación positiva y que la TNM puede explicar el 6% de la prevalencia de VIH registrada. Cuando se incluyen cofactores socioeconómicos por país (educación, salud e ingreso), la magnitud asciende a 9% (P<0,05). La TNM, incluso ajustada por factores socioeconómicos, explica modestamente la prevalencia de VIH registrada. Los factores socioeconómicos indican mejoras en todos los indicadores en Centroamérica y México, aunque persisten importantes brechas entre países. CONCLUSIONES: La modesta asociación observada entre movilidad poblacional y prevalencia de VIH está condicionada por la situación socioeconómica de los países estudiados. La información disponible limitó el alcance del análisis para establecer con mayor certeza la existencia de esta asociación. En consecuencia, con la información disponible no es posible atribuir a la migración un papel determinante en la diseminación del VIH.

OBJECTIVE: Estimate the magnitude of the association between population mobility, measured by net migration rate (NMR), and HIV prevalence in Central America and Mexico. METHODS: Using time series models, based on public information from UNAIDS, UNDP, ECLAC, and the World Bank for the period 1990-2009, this association was studied in individuals aged 15-49 years, and adjusted for socioeconomic factors (education, unemployment, life expectancy, and income). RESULTS: NMR was negative in all countries except Costa Rica and Panama. Unadjusted results of the model show a positive association and that NMR can explain 6% of recorded HIV prevalence. When socioeconomic cofactors are included by country (education, health, and income), the magnitude increases to 9% (P<0.05). NMR, even when adjusted for socioeconomic factors, explains some of recorded HIV prevalence. All socioeconomic indicators show improvements in Central America and Mexico, although large gaps persist among countries. CONCLUSIONS: The modest association observed between population mobility and HIV prevalence is conditioned by the socioeconomic status of the countries studied. Information availability limited the study’s ability to establish the existence of this association with greater certainty. Accordingly, based on available information, it is not possible to affirm that migration plays a key role in the spread of HIV.

Costs and benefits of HAART for patients with HIV in a public hospital in Mexico.

BACKGROUND: The Mexican government is currently implementing strategies to improve and expand comprehensive treatment for people living with HIV. Limited data, however, are available on the benefits obtained and costs incurred by these strategies. OBJECTIVE: To estimate the effects of highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART) on a cohort of people living with HIV and to estimate the cost of extending patients' lives. METHODS: A survival analysis was used to follow a dynamic cohort of 797 people receiving AIDS treatment in Mexico from 1982 to 2006. The Kaplan-Meier method was applied to estimate the probability of survival for different lengths of time starting on the date of diagnosis. The Cox's proportional hazards regression model was used to assess differences in AIDS mortality by antiretroviral therapy regimen, age and sex. RESULTS: The probability of survival after diagnosis without antiretroviral therapy (ART) was approximately 0.73 (95% CI 0.69-0.77) after the first year, 0.36 (95% CI 0.32-0.40) at 5 years, 0.28 (95% CI 0.24-0.33) at the tenth year, 0.26 (95% CI 0.21-0.31) at the fifteenth year and 0.22 (95% CI 0.14-0.30) thereafter. The results showed a longer life expectancy when patients took HAART (as opposed to monotherapy or dual therapy) from the beginning of their treatment. Results from the Cox model showed that those who started and continued on HAART were 7.1 (P < 0.01) times more likely to survive than those who received no treatment. Extending the length of life beyond 15 years after the initial diagnosis represents an accumulated cost of more than US$280,000.00 per individual.

Factores asociados con la búsqueda del servicio de interrupción legal del embarazo en la Ciudad de México, 2010 / Factors associated with the seeking of legal induced abortion services in Mexico City in 2010

OBJETIVO: Identificar factores asociados con la búsqueda del servicio de interrupción legal del embarazo (ILE) en la Ciudad de México. MATERIAL Y MÉTODOS: Se utilizó un diseño casos-controles. Usuarias del servicio de ILE fueron definidas como casos, y usuarias de control prenatal con 13 o más semanas de gestación con un embarazo no deseado constituyeron los controles. Se ajustaron modelos de regresión logística condicional. RESULTADOS: Los años de escolaridad (RM=1.47, IC:1.04-2.07), la ocupación (estudiante, RM=7.31, IC:1.58-33.95; tener empleo remunerado, RM= 13.43, IC:2.04-88.54) y número de interrupciones de embarazo previas (RM=11.41, IC:1.65-79.07) se asociaron con la búsqueda de ILE. El factor de mayor peso fue la ocupación; las mujeres que trabajan tuvieron 13.4 veces mayor posibilidad de demandar el servicio de ILE. CONCLUSIONES: En el contexto de la Ciudad de México, mujeres con más educación y participación laboral activa utilizan más los servicios de ILE. Se requieren estrategias dirigidas a incrementar el uso de estos servicios por mujeres menos favorecidas.

OBJECTIVE: To identify factors associated with the seeking of the legal-interruption-pregnancy (LIP) services in Mexico City. MATERIALS AND METHODS: We used a case-control design. Users who utilized the LIP were defined as cases, while users of the antenatal care service with gestational age 13 or more weeks and who reported having an unwanted pregnancy were defined as controls. Logistic regressions were fitted to estimate odds ratios. RESULTS: Higher level of education (OR=1.47, 95% CI:1.04-2.07), women's occupation (being student OR=7.31, 95% CI:1.58-33.95; worker OR=13.43, 95% CI:2.04-88.54), and number of previous abortions (OR=11.41, 95% CI:1.65-79.07) were identified as factors associated with the lookup of LIP. CONCLUSIONS: In Mexico City context, empowered women with a higher level of education, or having a work activity are the users of LIP services. Strategies for improving access of women with low empowerment conditions are needed.