The occurrence of preterm delivery is linked to pregnancy-specific distress and elevated inflammatory markers across gestation.

There is mounting evidence that stress during pregnancy can have detrimental effects on gestation and birth. Existing studies indicate that prenatal stress may increase levels of circulating inflammatory markers that are associated with prematurity and pregnancy complications, suggesting that stress-related changes in the cytokine milieu may increase the risk of poor pregnancy outcome. Previous studies, however, have not clearly connected stress during pregnancy to changes in inflammatory mediators and, in turn, to clinically-relevant outcomes such as premature delivery. The present study sought to directly connect prenatal stress and changes in inflammatory markers to preterm delivery and gestational age at birth (GAB). A sample of 173 women was recruited during the first trimester of pregnancy and followed through delivery. Overall stress, pregnancy-specific distress, and inflammatory markers were assessed early and later in pregnancy, and the predictive value of these measures for preterm birth and GAB was determined. There were significant differences in pregnancy-specific distress, IL-6, and TNF-α between women who delivered prematurely versus those who delivered at term, and elevated levels of pregnancy-specific distress, IL-6, and TNF-α were predictive of shortened GAB overall. Importantly, in many cases, the effects of overall stress and pregnancy-specific distress on GAB were mediated by levels of circulating inflammatory markers. Collectively, these data provide strong evidence that prenatal stress experiences can affect the timing of parturition via alterations in circulating inflammatory mediators, and underscore the need for ongoing research aimed at further understanding the mechanisms and effects of prenatal stress on maternal and infant health.

For better or worse: relationship status and body mass index.

Recent increases in the incidence of obesity and declines in marriage have prompted policymakers to implement policies to mitigate these trends. This paper examines the link between these two outcomes. There are four hypotheses (selection, protection, social obligation and marriage market) that might explain the relationship between marital status transitions and changes in Body Mass Index (BMI). The selection hypothesis suggests that those with a lower BMI are more likely to be selected into marriage. The protection hypothesis states that married adults will have better physical health as a result of the increased social support and reduced incidence of risky behavior among married individuals. The social obligation hypothesis states that those in relationships may eat more regular meals and/or richer and denser foods due to social obligations which may arise because of marriage. Finally, the marriage market hypothesis indicates that when adults are no longer in the marriage market they may not maintain a healthy BMI because doing so is costly and they are in a stable union-or on the other hand, adults may enhance their prospects in the marriage market by losing weight. Taking advantage of longitudinal data and complete marriage histories in the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1979, we estimate individual fixed effects models to examine associations between the change in log BMI and the incidence of overweight and obesity, and changes in relationship status controlling for the effects of aging and other respondent characteristics. We find no support for the marriage protection hypothesis. Rather we find evidence supporting the social obligation and marriage market hypotheses-BMI increases for both men and women during marriage and in the course of a cohabiting relationship. Separate analyses by race and ethnicity reveal substantial differences in the response of BMI to relationship status across these groups.

Economic incentives and foster child adoption.

Every year, a large number of children in the United States enter the foster care system. Many of them are eventually reunited with their biological parents or quickly adopted. A significant number, however, face long-term foster care, and some of these children are eventually adopted by their foster parents. The decision by foster parents to adopt their foster child carries significant economic consequences, including for feiting foster care payments while also assuming responsibility for medical, legal, and educational expenses, to name a few. Since 1980, U.S. states have begun to offer adoption subsidies to offset some of these expenses, significantly lowering the cost of adopting a child who is in the foster care system. This article presents empirical evidence of the role that these economic incentives play in foster parents' decision of when, or if, to adopt their foster child. We find that adoption subsidies increase adoptions through two distinct price mechanisms: by lowering the absolute cost of adoption, and by lowering the relative cost of adoption versus long-term foster care.

A head above the rest: height and adolescent psychological well-being.

Using data from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health, we examine the effect of adolescent height on mental health as measured by Center for Epidemiological Studies Depression (CES-D) scores and Rosenberg Self-Esteem (RSE) scores. We find evidence that height is associated with fewer symptoms of depression among females 17-19 years of age, and among males 12-19 years of age. The negative relationship between height and depression among males persists after controlling for body mass index (BMI), differences in pubertal timing, and individual fixed effects, but does not explain the effect of height on educational attainment. We conclude that there is a small psychological benefit for males to being taller as an adolescent.

A national sample of US paternity tests: do demographics predict test outcomes?

BACKGROUND: Nearly 300,000 paternity tests are performed in the United States annually to include or exclude a male as the biological father of a child. Little is known about how well the test outcomes could be predicted simply on the basis of the subjects' social background. Our objective is to document the demographic composition of test subjects and to determine how well ethnic background and age predict paternity inclusion. STUDY DESIGN AND METHODS: A national database of 9999 paternity test results was formed weighted to represent the population of paternity establishment cases for the United States. Multiple regression determined the odds ratio of a paternity inclusion based on demographic variables such as race and age. RESULTS: The test results indicated paternity inclusions in 72 percent of cases, overall. The percent included varied little across racial and/or ethnic categories with a low of 67 percent in African Americans and a high of 82 percent among Native Americans, but these differences were not significant in multivariate analysis. The likelihood of inclusion showed a modest but significant correlation with increased maternal age. Mothers of European origin who nominated non-Europeans as fathers were less likely to identify the correct man as father. CONCLUSION: For any subject receiving a genetic test in a child support office, predicting a 72 percent probability that the test will show paternity inclusion offers as good an estimate of the test outcome as a subgroup estimate based on a subject's age, race, and child characteristics.

The impact of government policies and neighborhood characteristics on teenage sexual activity and contraceptive use.

OBJECTIVES: This study sought to examine the effects of government policies and neighborhood characteristics on adolescent female sexual behavior to better inform future public policy decisions. METHODS: Using a bivariate probit model and National Survey of Family Growth data on women aged 15 through 19 years, we estimated the probabilities of their being sexually active and, if sexually active, of their using contraceptives. RESULTS: Variables measuring the cost of obtaining an abortion are not good predictors of sexual activity or contraceptive use. However, the relationship between family planning availability and contraceptive use is statistically significant at conventional levels. CONCLUSIONS: Policymakers seem to have little leverage with regard to influencing the decision to become sexually active, although increased access to family planning services may encourage responsible contraceptive behavior. Neighborhood context is an important determinant of adolescent female sexual behavior.