In vitro investigation of protein assembly by combined microscopy and infrared spectroscopy at the nanometer scale.

The nanoscale structure and dynamics of proteins on surfaces has been extensively studied using various imaging techniques, such as transmission electron microscopy and atomic force microscopy (AFM) in liquid environments. These powerful imaging techniques, however, can potentially damage or perturb delicate biological material and do not provide chemical information, which prevents a fundamental understanding of the dynamic processes underlying their evolution under physiological conditions. Here, we use a platform developed in our laboratory that enables acquisition of infrared (IR) spectroscopy and AFM images of biological material in physiological liquids with nanometer resolution in a cell closed by atomically thin graphene membranes transparent to IR photons. In this work, we studied the self-assembly process of S-layer proteins at the graphene-aqueous solution interface. The graphene acts also as the membrane separating the solution containing the proteins and Ca2+ ions from the AFM tip, thus eliminating sample damage and contamination effects. The formation of S-layer protein lattices and their structural evolution was monitored by AFM and by recording the amide I and II IR absorption bands, which reveal the noncovalent interaction between proteins and their response to the environment, including ionic strength and solvation. Our measurement platform opens unique opportunities to study biological material and soft materials in general.

Flexoelectric Enhancement of Strain Gradient Elasticity Across a Ferroelectric-to-Paraelectric Phase Transition.

We study the temperature dependent elastic properties of Ba0.8Sr0.2TiO3 freestanding membranes across the ferroelectric-to-paraelectric phase transition using an atomic force microscope. The bending rigidity of thin membranes can be stiffer compared to stretching due to strain gradient elasticity (SGE). We measure the Young's modulus of freestanding Ba0.8Sr0.2TiO3 drumheads in bending and stretching dominated deformation regimes on a variable temperature platform, finding a peak in the difference between the two Young's moduli obtained at the phase transition. This demonstrates a dependence of SGE on the dielectric properties of a material and alludes to a flexoelectric origin of an effective SGE.

Mixed Nanosphere Assemblies at a Liquid-Liquid Interface.

The in-plane packing of gold (Au), polystyrene (PS), and silica (SiO2) spherical nanoparticle (NP) mixtures at a water-oil interface is investigated in situ by UV-vis reflection spectroscopy. All NPs are functionalized with carboxylic acid such that they strongly interact with amine-functionalized ligands dissolved in an immiscible oil phase at the fluid interface. This interaction markedly increases the binding energy of these nanoparticle surfactants (NPSs). The separation distance between the Au NPSs and Au surface coverage are measured by the maximum plasmonic wavelength (λmax) and integrated intensities as the assemblies saturate for different concentrations of non-plasmonic (PS/SiO2) NPs. As the PS/SiO2 content increases, the time to reach intimate Au NP contact also increases, resulting from their hindered mobility. λmax changes within the first few minutes of adsorption due to weak attractive inter-NP forces. Additionally, a sharper peak in the reflection spectrum at NP saturation reveals tighter Au NP packing for assemblies with intermediate non-plasmonic NP content. Grazing incidence small angle X-ray scattering (GISAXS) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) measurements confirm a decrease in Au NP domain size for mixtures with larger non-plasmonic NP content. The results demonstrate a simple means to probe interfacial phase separation behavior using in situ spectroscopy as interfacial structures densify into jammed, phase-separated NP films.

Oversaturating Liquid Interfaces with Nanoparticle-Surfactants.

Assemblies of nanoparticles at liquid interfaces hold promise as dynamic "active" systems when there are convenient methods to drive the system out of equilibrium via crowding. To this end, we show that oversaturated assemblies of charged nanoparticles can be realized and held in that state with an external electric field. Upon removal of the field, strong interparticle repulsive forces cause a high in-plane electrostatic pressure that is released in an explosive emulsification. We quantify the packing of the assembly as it is driven into the oversaturated state under an applied electric field. Physiochemical conditions substantially affect the intensity of the induced explosive emulsification, underscoring the crucial role of interparticle electrostatic repulsion.

The living interface between synthetic biology and biomaterial design.

Recent far-reaching advances in synthetic biology have yielded exciting tools for the creation of new materials. Conversely, advances in the fundamental understanding of soft-condensed matter, polymers and biomaterials offer new avenues to extend the reach of synthetic biology. The broad and exciting range of possible applications have substantial implications to address grand challenges in health, biotechnology and sustainability. Despite the potentially transformative impact that lies at the interface of synthetic biology and biomaterials, the two fields have, so far, progressed mostly separately. This Perspective provides a review of recent key advances in these two fields, and a roadmap for collaboration at the interface between the two communities. We highlight the near-term applications of this interface to the development of hierarchically structured biomaterials, from bioinspired building blocks to 'living' materials that sense and respond based on the reciprocal interactions between materials and embedded cells.

Hanging droplets from liquid surfaces.

Natural and man-made robotic systems use the interfacial tension between two fluids to support dense objects on liquid surfaces. Here, we show that coacervate-encased droplets of an aqueous polymer solution can be hung from the surface of a less dense aqueous polymer solution using surface tension. The forces acting on and the shapes of the hanging droplets can be controlled. Sacs with homogeneous and heterogeneous surfaces are hung from the surface and, by capillary forces, form well-ordered arrays. Locomotion and rotation can be achieved by embedding magnetic microparticles within the assemblies. Direct contact of the droplet with air enables in situ manipulation and compartmentalized cascading chemical reactions with selective transport. Applications including functional microreactors, motors, and biomimetic robots are evident.

Precision Engineering of 2D Protein Layers as Chelating Biogenic Scaffolds for Selective Recovery of Rare-Earth Elements.

Rare-earth elements, which include the lanthanide series, are key components of many clean energy technologies, including wind turbines and photovoltaics. Because most of these 4f metals are at high risk of supply chain disruption, the development of new recovery technologies is necessary to avoid future shortages, which may impact renewable energy production. This paper reports the synthesis of a non-natural biogenic material as a potential platform for bioinspired lanthanide extraction. The biogenic material takes advantage of the atomically precise structure of a 2D crystalline protein lattice with the high lanthanide binding affinity of hydroxypyridinonate chelators. Luminescence titration data demonstrated that the engineered protein layers have affinities for all tested lanthanides in the micromolar-range (dissociation constants) and a higher binding affinity for the lanthanide ions with a smaller ionic radius. Furthermore, competitive titrations confirmed the higher selectivity (up to several orders of magnitude) of the biogenic material for lanthanides compared to other cations commonly found in f-element sources. Lastly, the functionalized protein layers could be reused in several cycles by desorbing the bound metal with citrate solutions. Taken together, these results highlight biogenic materials as promising bioadsorption platforms for the selective binding of lanthanides, with potential applications in the recovery of these critical elements from waste.

Visualizing Assembly Dynamics of All-Liquid 3D Architectures.

To better exploit all-liquid 3D architectures, it is essential to understand dynamic processes that occur during printing one liquid in a second immiscible liquid. Here, the interfacial assembly and transition of 5,10,15,20-tetrakis(4-sulfonatophenyl) porphyrin (H6 TPPS) over time provides an opportunity to monitor the interfacial behavior of nanoparticle surfactants (NPSs) during all-liquid printing. The formation of J-aggregates of H4 TPPS2- at the interface and the interfacial conversion of the J-aggregates of H4 TPPS2- to H-aggregates of H2 TPPS4- is demonstrated by interfacial rheology and in situ atomic force microscopy. Equally important are the chromogenic changes that are characteristic of the state of aggregation, where J-aggregates are green in color and H-aggregates are red in color. In all-liquid 3D printed structures, the conversion in the aggregate state with time is reflected in a spatially varying change in the color, providing a simple, direct means of assessing the aggregation state of the molecules and the mechanical properties of the assemblies, linking a macroscopic observable (color) to mechanical properties.

The Buckling Spectra of Nanoparticle Surfactant Assemblies.

Fine control over the mechanical properties of thin sheets underpins transcytosis, cell shape, and morphogenesis. Applying these principles to artificial, liquid-based systems has led to reconfigurable materials for soft robotics, actuation, and chemical synthesis. However, progress is limited by a lack of synthetic two-dimensional membranes that exhibit tunable mechanical properties over a comparable range to that seen in nature. Here, we show that the bending modulus, B, of thin assemblies of nanoparticle surfactants (NPSs) at the oil-water interface can be varied continuously from sub-kBT to 106kBT, by varying the ligands and particles that comprise the NPS. We find extensive departure from continuum behavior, including enormous mechanical anisotropy and a power law relation between B and the buckling spectrum width. Our findings provide a platform for shape-changing liquid devices and motivate new theories for the description of thin-film wrinkling.

Supercritical CO2 uptake by nonswelling phyllosilicates.

Interactions between supercritical (sc) CO2 and minerals are important when CO2 is injected into geologic formations for storage and as working fluids for enhanced oil recovery, hydraulic fracturing, and geothermal energy extraction. It has previously been shown that at the elevated pressures and temperatures of the deep subsurface, scCO2 alters smectites (typical swelling phyllosilicates). However, less is known about the effects of scCO2 on nonswelling phyllosilicates (illite and muscovite), despite the fact that the latter are the dominant clay minerals in deep subsurface shales and mudstones. Our studies conducted by using single crystals, combining reaction (incubation with scCO2), visualization [atomic force microscopy (AFM)], and quantifications (AFM, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, X-ray diffraction, and off-gassing measurements) revealed unexpectedly high CO2 uptake that far exceeded its macroscopic surface area. Results from different methods collectively suggest that CO2 partially entered the muscovite interlayers, although the pathways remain to be determined. We hypothesize that preferential dissolution at weaker surface defects and frayed edges allows CO2 to enter the interlayers under elevated pressure and temperature, rather than by diffusing solely from edges deeply into interlayers. This unexpected uptake of CO2, can increase CO2 storage capacity by up to ∼30% relative to the capacity associated with residual trapping in a 0.2-porosity sandstone reservoir containing up to 18 mass % of illite/muscovite. This excess CO2 uptake constitutes a previously unrecognized potential trapping mechanism.

Infrared Nanospectroscopy at the Graphene-Electrolyte Interface.

We present a new methodology that enables studies of the molecular structure of graphene-liquid interfaces with nanoscale spatial resolution. It is based on Fourier transform infrared nanospectroscopy (nano-FTIR), where the infrared (IR) field is plasmonically enhanced near the tip apex of an atomic force microscope (AFM). The graphene seals a liquid electrolyte reservoir while acting also as a working electrode. The photon transparency of graphene enables IR spectroscopy studies of its interface with liquids, including water, propylene carbonate, and aqueous ammonium sulfate electrolyte solutions. We illustrate the method by comparing IR spectra obtained by nano-FTIR and attenuated total reflection (which has a detection depth of a few microns) demonstrating that the nano-FTIR method makes it possible to determine changes in speciation and ion concentration in the electric double and diffuse layers as a function of bias.

Mechanical Properties of Solidifying Assemblies of Nanoparticle Surfactants at the Oil-Water Interface.

The effect of polymer surfactant structure and concentration on the self-assembly, mechanical properties, and solidification of nanoparticle surfactants (NPSs) at the oil-water interface was studied. The surface tension of the oil-water interface was found to depend strongly on the choice of the polymer surfactant used to assemble the NPSs, with polymer surfactants bearing multiple polar groups being the most effective at reducing interfacial tension and driving the NPS assembly. By contrast, only small variations in the shear modulus of the system were observed, suggesting that it is determined largely by particle density. In the presence of polymer surfactants bearing multiple functional groups, NPS assemblies on pendant drop surfaces were observed to spontaneously solidify above a critical polymer surfactant concentration. Interfacial solidification accelerated rapidly as polymer surfactant concentration was increased. On long timescales after solidification, pendant drop interfaces were observed to spontaneously wrinkle at sufficiently low surface tensions (approximately 5 mN m-1). Interfacial shear rheology of the NPS assemblies was elastic-dominated, with the shear modulus ranging from 0.1 to 1 N m-1, comparable to values obtained for nanoparticle monolayers elsewhere. Our work paves the way for the development of designer, multicomponent oil-water interfaces with well-defined mechanical, structural, and functional properties.

The Interfacial Assembly of Polyoxometalate Nanoparticle Surfactants.

Polyoxometalates (POMs) using {Mo72V30} as an example, dissolved in water, can interact with amine-terminated polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS-NH2) dissolved in toluene at the water/toluene interface to form POM-surfactants that significantly lower the interfacial tension and can be used to stabilize liquids via interfacial elasticity. The jamming of the POM-surfactants at the water/oil interface with consequent wrinkling occurs with a decrease in the interfacial area. The packing density of the POM-surfactants at the interface can be tuned by varying the strength of screening with the addition of cations with differing hydrated radii.

Stabilizing Liquids Using Interfacial Supramolecular Polymerization.

The strong electrostatic interactions at the oil-water interface between a small molecule, 5,10,15,20-tetrakis(4-sulfonatophenyl)porphyrin, H6 TPPS, dissolved in water, and an amine terminated hydrophobic polymer dissolved in oil are shown to produce a supramolecular polymer surfactant (SPS) of H6 TPPS at the interface with a binding energy that is sufficiently strong to allow an intermolecular aggregation of the supramolecular polymers. SPSs at the oil-water interface are confirmed by in situ real-space atomic force microcopy imaging. The assemblies of these aggregates can jam at the interface, opening a novel route to kinetically trap the liquids in non-equilibrium shapes. The elastic film, comprised of SPSs, wrinkles upon compression, providing a strategy to stabilize liquids in non-equilibrium shapes.

Fundamental understanding of chemical processes in extreme ultraviolet resist materials.

New photoresists are needed to advance extreme ultraviolet (EUV) lithography. The tailored design of efficient photoresists is enabled by a fundamental understanding of EUV induced chemistry. Processes that occur in the resist film after absorption of an EUV photon are discussed, and a new approach to study these processes on a fundamental level is described. The processes of photoabsorption, electron emission, and molecular fragmentation were studied experimentally in the gas-phase on analogs of the monomer units employed in chemically amplified EUV resists. To demonstrate the dependence of the EUV absorption cross section on selective light harvesting substituents, halogenated methylphenols were characterized employing the following techniques. Photoelectron spectroscopy was utilized to investigate kinetic energies and yield of electrons emitted by a molecule. The emission of Auger electrons was detected following photoionization in the case of iodo-methylphenol. Mass-spectrometry was used to deduce the molecular fragmentation pathways following electron emission and atomic relaxation. To gain insight on the interaction of emitted electrons with neutral molecules in a condensed film, the fragmentation pattern of neutral gas-phase molecules, interacting with an electron beam, was studied and observed to be similar to EUV photon fragmentation. Below the ionization threshold, electrons were confirmed to dissociate iodo-methylphenol by resonant electron attachment.

Fine-Tuning Nanoparticle Packing at Water-Oil Interfaces Using Ionic Strength.

Nanoparticle-surfactants (NPSs) assembled at water-oil interfaces can significantly lower the interfacial tension and can be used to stabilize liquids. Knowing the formation and assembly and actively tuning the packing of these NPSs is of significant fundamental interest for the interfacial behavior of nanoparticles and of interest for water purification, drug encapsulation, enhanced oil recovery, and innovative energy transduction applications. Here, we demonstrate by means of interfacial tension measurements the high ionic strength helps the adsorption of NPSs to the water-oil interface leading to a denser packing of NPSs at the interface. With the reduction of interfacial area, the phase transitions from a "gas"-like to "liquid" to "solid" states of NPSs in two dimensions are observed. Finally, we provide the first in situ real-space imaging of NPSs at the water-oil interface by atomic force microcopy.

Harnessing entropic and enthalpic contributions to create a negative tone chemically amplified molecular resist for high-resolution lithography.

Here we present a new resist design concept. By adding dilute cross-linkers to a chemically amplified molecular resist, we synergize entropic and enthalpic contributions to dissolution by harnessing both changes to molecular weight and changes in intermolecular bonding to create a system that outperforms resists that emphasize one contribution over the other. We study patterning performance, resist modulus, solubility kinetics and material redistribution as a function of cross-linker concentration. Cross-linking varies from dilute oligomerization to creating a highly networked system. The addition of small amounts of cross-linker improves resist performance by reducing material diffusion and redistribution during development and stiffening the features to avoid pattern collapse. The new dilute cross-linking system achieves the highest resolution of a sensitive molecular glass resist at 20 nm half-pitch and line-edge roughness (LER) of 4.3 nm and can inform new resist design towards patterned feature control at the molecular level.

Angle between DNA linker and nucleosome core particle regulates array compaction revealed by individual-particle cryo-electron tomography.

The conformational dynamics of nucleosome arrays generate a diverse spectrum of microscopic states, posing challenges to their structural determination. Leveraging cryogenic electron tomography (cryo-ET), we determine the three-dimensional (3D) structures of individual mononucleosomes and arrays comprising di-, tri-, and tetranucleosomes. By slowing the rate of condensation through a reduction in ionic strength, we probe the intra-array structural transitions that precede inter-array interactions and liquid droplet formation. Under these conditions, the arrays exhibite irregular zig-zag conformations with loose packing. Increasing the ionic strength promoted intra-array compaction, yet we do not observe the previously reported regular 30-nanometer fibers. Interestingly, the presence of H1 do not induce array compaction; instead, one-third of the arrays display nucleosomes invaded by foreign DNA, suggesting an alternative role for H1 in chromatin network construction. We also find that the crucial parameter determining the structure adopted by chromatin arrays is the angle between the entry and exit of the DNA and the corresponding tangents to the nucleosomal disc. Our results provide insights into the initial stages of intra-array compaction, a critical precursor to condensation in the regulation of chromatin organization.

Formation and Nanomechanical Properties of Silver-Mediated Guanine DNA Duplexes in Aqueous Solution.

Silver cations can mediate base pairing of guanine (G) DNA oligomers, yielding linear parallel G-Ag+-G duplexes with enhanced stabilities compared to those of canonical DNA duplexes. To enable their use in programmable DNA nanotechnologies, it is critical to understand solution-state formation and the nanomechanical stiffness of G-Ag+-G duplexes. Using temperature-controlled circular dichroism (CD) spectroscopy, we find that heating mixtures of G oligomers and silver salt above 50 °C fully destabilizes G-quadruplex structures and converts oligomers to G-Ag+-G duplexes. Electrospray ionization mass spectrometry supports that G-Ag+-G duplexes form at stoichiometries of 1 Ag+ per base pair, and CD spectroscopy suggests that as the Ag+/base stoichiometry increases further, G-Ag+-G duplexes undergo additional morphological changes. Using liquid-phase atomic force microscopy, we find that this excess Ag+ enables assembly of long fiberlike structures with ∼2.5 nm heights equivalent to a single DNA duplex but with lengths that far exceed a single duplex. Finally, using the conditions established to form single G-Ag+-G duplexes, we use a surface forces apparatus (SFA) to compare the solution-phase stiffness of single G-Ag+-G duplexes with dG-dC Watson-Crick-Franklin duplexes. SFA shows that G-Ag+-G duplexes are 1.3 times stiffer than dG-dC duplexes, confirming gas-phase ion mobility spectrometry measurements and computational predictions. These findings may guide the development of structural DNA nanotechnologies that rely on silver-mediated base pairing.

Self-Propulsion by Directed Explosive Emulsification.

An active droplet system, programmed to repeatedly move autonomously at a specific velocity in a well-defined direction, is demonstrated. Coulombic energy is stored in oversaturated interfacial assemblies of charged nanoparticle-surfactants by an applied DC electric field and can be released on demand. Spontaneous emulsification is suppressed by an increase in the stiffness of the oversaturated assemblies. Rapidly removing the field releases the stored energy in an explosive event that propels the droplet, where thousands of charged microdroplets are ballistically ejected from the surface of the parent droplet. The ejection is made directional by a symmetry breaking of the interfacial assembly, and the combined interaction force of the microdroplet plume on one side of the droplet propels the droplet distances tens of times its size, making the droplet active. The propulsion is autonomous, repeatable, and agnostic to the chemical composition of the nanoparticles. The symmetry-breaking in the nanoparticle assembly controls the microdroplet velocity and direction of propulsion. This mechanism of droplet propulsion will advance soft micro-robotics, establishes a new type of active matter, and introduces new vehicles for compartmentalized delivery.