Novel approaches to probe the binding of recoverin to membranes.

Recoverin is a protein involved in the phototransduction cascade by regulating the activity of rhodopsin kinase through a calcium-dependent binding process at the surface of rod outer segment disk membranes. We have investigated the interaction of recoverin with zwitterionic phosphatidylcholine bilayers, the major lipid component of the rod outer segment disk membranes, using both 31P and 19F solid-state nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) and infrared spectroscopy. In particular, several novel approaches have been used, such as the centerband-only detection of exchange (CODEX) technique to investigate lipid lateral diffusion and 19F NMR to probe the environment of the recoverin myristoyl group. The results reveal that the lipid bilayer organization is not disturbed by recoverin. Non-myristoylated recoverin induces a small increase in lipid hydration that appears to be correlated with an increased lipid lateral diffusion. The thermal stability of recoverin remains similar in the absence or presence of lipids and Ca2+. Fluorine atoms have been strategically introduced at positions 4 or 12 on the myristoyl moiety of recoverin to, respectively, probe its behavior in the interfacial and more hydrophobic regions of the membrane. 19F NMR results allow the observation of the calcium-myristoyl switch, the myristoyl group experiencing two different environments in the absence of Ca2+ and the immobilization of the recoverin myristoyl moiety in phosphatidylcholine membranes in the presence of Ca2+.

Progress in the synthesis of fluorinated phosphatidylcholines for biological applications.

The synthesis and biophysical studies of fluorinated phospholipids have attracted a lot of interest over the past 40 years. Mono- and polyfluorinated phospholipids, containing 1-4 fluorine atoms, are designed mostly with the goal of developing new model membranes. The fluorine atoms are herein used as probes, mainly in 19F-NMR spectroscopy, to study biomolecule complexes. In this case, the spectroscopic features of the fluorine atom and the preservation of the parent lipid properties are of primary importance. On the other hand, highly fluorinated phospholipids, which contain a perfluorinated segment in alkyl chains, are mainly developed as drug-delivery devices and oxygen carriers. Here, the particular chemical characteristics of fluorine are used to form more stable and less toxic lipid vesicles/emulsions. This review will focus on describing the synthetic pathways for mono-, poly- and highly fluorinated phosphatidylcholines. We will also discuss, though not thoroughly, their properties and potential applications.

Influence of the Length and Charge on the Activity of α-Helical Amphipathic Antimicrobial Peptides.

Hydrophobic mismatch is important for pore-forming amphipathic antimicrobial peptides, as demonstrated recently [Grau-Campistany, A., et al. (2015) Sci. Rep. 5, 9388]. A series of different length peptides have been generated with the heptameric repeat sequence KIAGKIA, called KIA peptides, and it was found that only those helices sufficiently long to span the hydrophobic thickness of the membrane could induce leakage in lipid vesicles; there was also a clear length dependence of the antimicrobial and hemolytic activities. For the original KIA sequences, the cationic charge increased with peptide length. The goal of this work is to examine whether the charge also has an effect on activity; hence, we constructed two further series of peptides with a sequence similar to those of the KIA peptides, but with a constant charge of +7 for all lengths from 14 to 28 amino acids. For both of these new series, a clear length dependence similar to that of KIA peptides was observed, indicating that charge has only a minor influence. Both series also showed a distinct threshold length for peptides to be active, which correlates directly with the thickness of the membrane. Among the longer peptides, the new series showed activities only slightly lower than those of the original KIA peptides of the same length that had a higher charge. Shorter peptides, in which Gly was replaced with Lys, showed activities similar to those of KIA peptides of the same length, but peptides in which Ile was replaced with Lys lost their helicity and were less active.

Membrane fluidity is a driving force for recoverin myristoyl immobilization in zwitterionic lipids.

Recoverin is the only protein for which the phenomenon of calcium-myristoyl switch has been demonstrated without ambiguity. It is located in rod disk membranes where the highest content in polyunsaturated lipid acyl chains can be found. However, although essential to better understand the inactivation of the phototransduction process, the role of membrane fluidity on recoverin recruitment is unclear. We have therefore investigated the immobilization of the recoverin myristoyl moiety in the presence of phosphocholine bilayers using 2H solid-state NMR spectroscopy. Several lipids with different acyl chains were selected to investigate model membranes characterized by different fluidity. Immobilization of the recoverin myristoyl moiety was successfully observed but only in the presence of calcium and in specific lipid disordered states, showing that an optimal fluidity is required for recoverin immobilization.

Membrane solid-state NMR in Canada: A historical perspective.

This manuscript presents an overview of more than 40years of membrane solid-state nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) research in Canada. This technique is a method of choice for the study of the structure and dynamics of lipid bilayers; bilayer interactions with a variety of molecules such as membrane peptides, membrane proteins and drugs; and to investigate membrane peptide and protein structure, dynamics, and topology. Canada has a long tradition in this field of research, starting with pioneering work on natural and model membranes in the 1970s in a context of emergence of biophysics in the country. The 1980s and 1990s saw an emphasis on studying lipid structures and dynamics, and peptide-lipid and protein-lipid interactions. The study of bicelles began in the 1990s, and in the 2000s there was a rise in the study of membrane protein structures. Novel perspectives include using dynamic nuclear polarization (DNP) for membrane studies and using NMR in live cells. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: Biophysics in Canada, edited by Lewis Kay, John Baenziger, Albert Berghuis and Peter Tieleman.

Structural and Mechanical Roles for the C-Terminal Nonrepetitive Domain Become Apparent in Recombinant Spider Aciniform Silk.

Spider aciniform (or wrapping) silk is the toughest of the seven types of spider silks/glue due to a combination of high elasticity and strength. Like most spider silk proteins (spidroins), aciniform spidroin (AcSp1) has a large core repetitive domain flanked by relatively short N- and C-terminal nonrepetitive domains (the NTD and CTD, respectively). The major ampullate silk protein (MaSp) CTD has been shown to control protein solubility and fiber formation, but the aciniform CTD function remains unknown. Here, we compare fiber mechanical properties, solution-state structuring, and fibrous state secondary structural composition, and orientation relative to native aciniform silk for two AcSp1 repeat units with or without fused AcSp1- and MaSp-derived CTDs alongside three AcSp1 repeat units without a CTD. The native AcSp1 CTD uniquely modulated fiber mechanical properties, relative to all other constructs, directly correlating to a native-like structural transformation and alignment.

Amphiphilicity Is a Key Determinant in the Membrane Interactions of Synthetic 14-mer Cationic Peptide Analogues.

Cationic antimicrobial peptides are a component of the innate immune system of several organisms and represent an interesting alternative to fight multiresistant bacteria. In this context, we have elaborated a synthetic peptide scaffold allowing the study of the impact of different molecular determinants on the membrane interactions. The aim of the present study was to elucidate the mechanism of action of two cationic peptides that derive from a neutral 14-mer template peptide and where the hydrophilic portion is composed of a crown ether. The R5R10 peptide is active in the presence of both negatively charged and zwitterionic membranes (nonselective) and adopts an α-helical conformation, whereas the R4R11 peptide is more active in the presence of negatively charged membranes (selective) and forms intermolecular ß-sheet structures. Both the membrane topology and the location of the peptides have been assessed using solid-state NMR and attenuated total reflectance Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy. In addition, fluorescence experiments have been performed on different membrane mixtures to evaluate the ability of the peptides to induce a positive curvature to the membrane. Overall, for both the R5R10 and R4R11 peptides, the results are consistent with a mechanism of action similar to the sinking-raft model in which the peptides are mainly lying flat on the membrane surface and impose a bending stress to the membrane, thus leading to the formation of pores. Furthermore, the difference of membrane selectivity between R5R10 and R4R11 peptides is due to their differing amphipathic properties which modulate the membrane activity on zwitterionic model membranes.

Discriminating Lipid- from Protein-Calcium Binding To Understand the Interaction between Recoverin and Phosphatidylglycerol Model Membranes.

Recoverin is a protein involved in the phototransduction cascade by regulating the activity of rhodopsin kinase through a calcium-dependent binding process at the surface of rod outer segment disk membranes. Understanding how calcium modulates these interactions and how it interacts with anionic lipid membranes is necessary to gain insights into the function of recoverin. In this work, infrared spectroscopy allowed us to show that the availability of calcium to recoverin is modulated by the presence of complexes involving phosphatidylglycerol (PG), which in turn regulates its interactions with this negatively charged lipid. Calcium can indeed be sequestered into strongly bound complexes with PG and is thus sparingly available to recoverin. The thermal stability of recoverin then decreases, which results in weakened interactions with PG. By contrast, when calcium is fully available to recoverin, the protein is thermally stable, indicating that it binds two calcium ions, which results in favorable interactions with negatively charged lipids. Consequently, the protein induces an increase in the chain-melting phase transition temperature of PG, which is indicative of an enhanced lipid chain packing resulting from the peripheral location of the protein. The secondary structure of recoverin is not affected by its interactions with anionic membrane lipids. Similar results have been obtained with saturated and unsaturated anionic lipids. This work shows that the recruitment of recoverin at the surface of anionic lipid membranes is dependent on the availability of calcium.

Major Ampullate Spider Silk with Indistinguishable Spidroin Dope Conformations Leads to Different Fiber Molecular Structures.

To plentifully benefit from its properties (mechanical, optical, biological) and its potential to manufacture green materials, the structure of spider silk has to be known accurately. To this aim, the major ampullate (MA) silk of Araneus diadematus (AD) and Nephila clavipes (NC) has been compared quantitatively in the liquid and fiber states using Raman spectromicroscopy. The data show that the spidroin conformations of the two dopes are indistinguishable despite their specific amino acid composition. This result suggests that GlyGlyX and GlyProGlyXX amino acid motifs (X = Leu, Glu, Tyr, Ser, etc.) are conformationally equivalent due to the chain flexibility in the aqueous environment. Species-related sequence specificity is expressed more extensively in the fiber: the ß-sheet content is lower and width of the orientation distribution of the carbonyl groups is broader for AD (29% and 58°, respectively) as compared to NC (37% and 51°, respectively). ß-Sheet content values are close to the proportion of polyalanine segments, suggesting that ß-sheet formation is mainly dictated by the spidroin sequence. The extent of molecular alignment seems to be related to the presence of proline (Pro) that may decrease conformational flexibility and inhibit chain extension and alignment upon drawing. It appears that besides the presence of Pro, secondary structure and molecular orientation contribute to the different mechanical properties of MA threads.

Mimicking and Understanding the Agglutination Effect of the Antimicrobial Peptide Thanatin Using Model Phospholipid Vesicles.

Thanatin is a cationic 21-residue antimicrobial and antifongical peptide found in the spined soldier bug Podisus maculiventris. It is believed that it does not permeabilize membranes but rather induces the agglutination of bacteria and inhibits cellular respiration. To clarify its mode of action, lipid vesicle organization and aggregation propensity as well as peptide secondary structure have been studied using different membrane models. Dynamic light scattering and turbidimetry results show that specific mixtures of negatively charged and zwitterionic phospholipid vesicles are able to mimic the agglutination effect of thanatin observed on Gram-negative and Gram-positive bacterial cells, while monoconstituent ("conventional") models cannot reproduce this phenomenon. The model of eukaryotic cell reveals no particular interaction with thanatin, which is consistent with the literature. Infrared spectroscopy shows that under the conditions under which vesicle agglutination occurs, thanatin exhibits a particular spectral pattern in the amide I' region and in the region associated with Arg side chains. The data suggest that thanatin mainly retains its hairpin structure, Arg residues being involved in strong interactions with anionic groups of phospholipids. In the absence of vesicle agglutination, the peptide conformation and Arg side-chain environment are similar to those observed in solution. The data show that a negatively charged membrane is required for thanatin to be active, but this condition is insufficient. The activity of thanatin seems to be modulated by the charge surface density of membranes and thanatin concentration.

Molecular model of hemoglobin N from Mycobacterium tuberculosis bound to lipid bilayers: a combined spectroscopic and computational study.

A singular aspect of the 2-on-2 hemoglobin structures of groups I and II is the presence of tunnels linking the protein surface to the distal heme pocket, supporting the storage and the diffusion of small apolar ligands to/from the buried active site. As the solubility of apolar ligands is greater in biological membranes than in solution, the association of these proteins with biological membranes may improve the efficiency of ligand capture. As very little is known on this subject, we have investigated the interactions between hemoglobin N (HbN), a group I 2-on-2 hemoglobin from the pathogenic Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb), and biological membranes using both experimental techniques and MD simulations. HbN has a potent nitric oxide dioxygenase activity (HbN-Fe²âº-O2 + •NO + H2O → HbN-Fe³âº-OH2 + NO3⁻) that is thought to protect the aerobic respiration of Mtb from inhibition by •NO. Three different membrane compositions were chosen for the studies, representative of the mycobacterial plasma membrane and the mammalian cell membranes. Both the experimental and the modeling results agreed with each other and allow for a detailed molecular description of HbN in association with membranes of different compositions. The results indicated that HbN is a peripheral protein, and the association with the membranes occurred via the pre-A, G, and H helices. In addition, HbN would be allowed to modulate the binding to the membranes via electrostatic interactions between the lipid membranes and the Asp100 residue. In its membrane-bound form the short tunnel of HbN is oriented toward the membrane interior and the other tunnels point toward the solvent. Such protein orientation would facilitate the uptake of nonpolar substrates from the membrane and the release of products to the solvent. It is interesting to note that the pre-A, G, and H helices are conserved among HbN from a few other Mycobacteria.

Investigation of the mechanism of action of novel amphipathic peptides: insights from solid-state NMR studies of oriented lipid bilayers.

We have investigated in the present study the effect of both non-selective and selective cationic 14-mer peptides on the lipid orientation of DMPC bilayers by (31)P solid-state nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy. Depending on the position of substitution, these peptides adopt mainly either an α-helical structure able to permeabilize DMPC and DMPG vesicles (non-selective peptides) or an intermolecular ß-sheet structure only able to permeabilize DMPG vesicles (selective peptides). Several systems have been investigated, namely bilayers mechanically oriented between glass plates as well as bicelles oriented with their normal perpendicular or parallel to the external magnetic field. The results have been compared with spectral simulations with the goal of elucidating the difference in the interaction of these two types of peptides with zwitterionic lipid bilayers. The results indicate that the perturbation induced by selective peptides is much greater than that induced by non-selective peptides in all the lipid systems investigated, and this perturbation has been associated to the aggregation of the selective ß-sheet peptides in these systems. On the other hand, the oriented lipid spectra obtained in the presence of non-selective peptides suggest the presence of toroidal pores. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: Interfacially Active Peptides and Proteins. Guest Editors: William C. Wimley and Kalina Hristova.

Besides fibrillization: putative role of the peptide fragment 71-82 on the structural and assembly behavior of α-synuclein.

The fibrillization of α-synuclein (α-syn) is involved in Parkinson's disease, a neurodegenerative disorder that affects four million people in the world. The amino acid sequence 71-82 of this protein (VTGVTAVAQKTV) has appeared to be essential for fibril formation. In the present study, we have investigated the secondary structure and thermal stability of the peptide fragment 71-82, α-syn71-82, as a function of concentration and temperature, as well as its interactions with phospholipid model membranes using various spectroscopic techniques. The data show that α-syn71-82 is mainly disordered in solution with the presence of a few ß-sheet structure elements. The peptide reversibly forms intermolecular ß-sheets with increasing concentration and decreasing temperature, suggesting that it is subjected to a thermodynamic equilibrium between a monomeric and an oligomeric form. This equilibrium seems to be affected by the presence of zwitterionic membranes. Conversely, the influence of the peptide on zwitterionic lipid bilayers is small and concentration-dependent. By contrast, α-syn71-82 is strongly affected by anionic vesicles. The peptide indeed exhibits a dramatic conformational change, reflecting an extensive and irreversible self-aggregation, the majority of the amino acids being involved in a parallel ß-sheet conformation. The aggregates appear to be located near the membrane surface but do not perturb significantly the membrane order. Comparing these results with the literature, it appears that α-syn71-82 shares several general properties and structural similarities with its parent protein. These common points suggest that the sequence 71-82 may overall contribute to the behavior and properties of α-syn.

The thermal stability of recoverin depends on calcium binding and its myristoyl moiety as revealed by infrared spectroscopy.

To evaluate the structural stability of recoverin, a member of the neuronal calcium sensor family, the effect of temperature, myristoylation, and calcium:protein molar ratio on its secondary structure has been studied by transmission infrared spectroscopy. On the basis of the data, the protein predominantly adopts α-helical structures (∼50-55%) with turns, unordered structures, and ß-sheets at 25 °C. The data show no significant impact of the presence of calcium and myristoylation on secondary structure. It is found that, in the absence of calcium, recoverin denatures and self-aggregates while being heated, with the formation of intermolecular antiparallel ß-sheets. The nonmyristoylated protein (Rec-nMyr) exhibits a lower temperature threshold of aggregation and a higher intermolecular ß-sheet content at 65 °C than the myristoylated protein (Rec-Myr). The former thus appears to be less thermally stable than the latter. In the presence of excess calcium ions (calcium:protein ratio of 10), the protein is thermally stable up to 65 °C with no significant conformational change, the presence of the myristoyl chain having no effect on the thermal stability of recoverin under these conditions. A decrease in the thermal stability of recoverin is observed as the calcium:protein molar ratio decreases, with Rec-nMyr being less stable than Rec-Myr. The data overall suggest that a minimal number of coordinated calcium ions is necessary to fully stabilize the structure of recoverin and that, when bound to the membrane, i.e., when the myristoyl chain protrudes from the interior pocket, recoverin should be more stable than in a Ca-free solution, i.e., when the myristoyl chain is sequestered in the interior.

Exploiting peptide nanostructures to construct functional artificial ion channels.

Natural ion channel proteins possess remarkable properties that researchers could exploit to develop nanochemotherapeutics and diagnostic devices. Unfortunately, the poor stability, limited availability, and complexity of these structures have precluded their use in practical devices. One solution to these limitations is to develop simpler molecular systems through chemical synthesis that mimic the salient properties of artificial ion channels. Inspired by natural channel proteins, our group has developed a family of peptide nanostructures thatcreate channels for ions by aligning crown ethers on top of each other when they adopt an α-helical conformation. Advantages to this crown ether/peptide framework approach include the ease of synthesis, the predictability of their conformations, and the ability to fine-tune and engineer their properties. We have synthesized these structures using solid phase methods from artificial crown ether amino acids made from L-DOPA. Circular dichroism and FTIR spectroscopy studies in different media confirmed that the nanostructures adopt the predicted α-helical conformation. Fluorescence studies verified the crown ether stacking arrangement. We confirmed the channel activity by single-channel measurements using a modified patch-clamp technique, planar lipid bilayer (PLB) assays, and various vesicle experiments. From the results, we estimate that a 6 Å distance between two relays is ideal for sodium cation transport, but relatively efficient ion transport can still occur with an 11 Å distance between two crown ethers. Biophysical studies demonstrated that peptide channels operate as monomers in an equilibrium between adsorption at the surface and an active, transmembrane orientation. Toward practical applications of these systems, we have prepared channel analogs that bear a biotin moiety, and we have used them as nanotransducers successfully to detect avidin. Analogs of channel peptide nanostructures showed cytotoxicity against breast and leukemia cancer cells. Overall, we have prepared well-defined nanostructures with designed properties, demonstrated their transport abilities, and described their mechanism of action. We have also illustrated the advantages and the versatility of polypeptides for the construction of functional nanoscale artificial ion channels.

Effect of pH on the structure of the recombinant C-terminal domain of Nephila clavipes dragline silk protein.

Spider silk proteins undergo a complex series of molecular events before being converted into an outstanding hierarchically organized fiber. Recent literature has underlined the crucial role of the C-terminal domain in silk protein stability and fiber formation. However, the effect of pH remains to be clarified. We have thus developed an efficient purification protocol to obtain stable native-like recombinant MaSp1 C-terminal domain of Nephila clavipes (NCCTD). Its structure was investigated as a function of pH using circular dichroism, fluorescence and solution NMR spectroscopy. The results show that the NCCTD structure is very sensitive to pH and suggest that a molten globule state occurs at pH 5.0 and below. Electronic microscopy images also indicate fiber formation at low pH and coarser globular particles at more basic pH. The results are consistent with a spinning process model where the NCCTD acts as an aggregation nucleus favoring the ß-aggregation of the hydrophobic polyalanine repeats upon spinning.

Evaluation of the effect of fluorination on the property of monofluorinated dimyristoylphosphatidylcholines.

The synthesis of three monofluorinated dimyristoylphosphatidylcholines (F-DMPC's), with the fluorine atom located at the extremities of the acyl chain in position 2 of the glycerol (sn-2), is described. The synthetic strategy relies on the coupling of 1-myristoyl-2-hydroxy-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine (14:0 lyso-PC) and three different fluorinated fatty acids. FTIR results suggest that the presence of the fluorine atom does not significantly perturb the lipid phase transition temperature and conformational order even though a small increase in the phase transition temperature is observed for the 14F derivative. Overall, comparison with previously reported F-DMPC's where the fluorine atom is located in the middle or close from either side supports the fact that monofluorination of the acyl chain in sn-2 brings minimal perturbation to the lipid bilayer. F-DMPC's could therefore potentially be used as NMR probes for the investigation at the molecular level of the interaction between drugs or peptides and lipid membranes and for the study of membrane topology.

Hydrodynamical properties of recombinant spider silk proteins: Effects of pH, salts and shear, and implications for the spinning process.

We have investigated the effect of pH, salts and shear on the hydrodynamical diameter of recombinant major ampullate (MA) rMaSpI silk proteins in solution as a function of time using (1) H solution NMR spectroscopy. The results indicate that the silk proteins in solution are composed of two diffusing populations, a high proportion of "native" solubilized proteins and a small amount of high molecular weight oligomers. Similar results are observed with the MA gland content. Salts help maintaining the proteins in a compact form in solution over time and inhibit aggregation, the absence of salts triggering protein assembly leading to a gel state. Moreover, the aggregation kinetics of rMaSpI at low salt concentration accelerates as the pH is close to the isoelectric point of the proteins, suggesting that the pH decrease tends to slow down aggregation. The data also support the strong impact of shear on the spinning process and suggest that the assembly is driven by a nucleation conformational conversion mechanism. Thus, the adjustment of the physicochemical conditions in the ampulla seems to promote a stable, long term storage. In addition, the optimization of protein conformation as well as their unfolding and aggregation propensity in the duct leads to a specifically organized structure.

Characterization of the structure of human skin substitutes by infrared microspectroscopy.

The skin acts mainly as a protective barrier from the external environment, thanks to the stratum corneum which is the outermost layer of the skin. As in vitro tests on skin are essential to elaborate new drugs, the development of skin models closer to reality becomes essential. It is now possible to produce in vitro human skin substitutes through tissue engineering by using the self-assembly method developed by the Laboratoire d'Organogénèse Expérimentale. In the present work, infrared microspectroscopy imaging analyses were performed to get in-depth morpho-spectral characterization of the three characteristic layers of human skin substitutes and normal human skin, namely the stratum corneum, living epidermis, and dermis. An infrared spectral analysis of the skin is a powerful tool to gain information on the order and conformation of the lipid chains and the secondary structure of proteins. On one hand, the symmetric stretching mode of the lipid methylene groups (2,850 cm(-1)) is sensitive to the acyl chain conformational order. The evolution profile of the frequency of this vibrational mode throughout the epidermis suggests that lipids in the stratum corneum are more ordered than those in the living epidermis. On the other hand, the frequencies of the infrared components underneath the envelop of the amide I band provide information about the overall protein conformation. The analysis of this mode establishes that the proteins essentially adopt an α-helix conformation in the epidermis, probably associated with the presence of keratin, while modifications of the protein content are observed in the dermis (extracellular matrix made of collagen). Finally, the lipid organization, as well as the protein composition in the different layers, is similar for human skin substitutes and normal human skin, confirming that the substitutes reproduce essential features of real skin and are appropriate biomimetics.