The proactive-reactive classification of intimate partner violence offenders: A multi-method approach to classification.

BACKGROUND: Men who commit violence against an intimate partner differ in their motives. Classifying the proactivity of men's partner violence may reveal important differences that could be treatment targets. AIMS: To examine the differences between proactive and reactive partner violence based on coded descriptions of past violent events. METHOD: Community cohabiting couples reporting intimate partner violence were recruited via advertisements. Men and women were independently interviewed about past male-to-female violent events. The narratives of a male perpetrator and a female victim were coded using a Proactive-Reactive coding system, yielding three categories of violence: reactive, mixed proactive/reactive and proactive. The three categories were compared for differences in personality disorder features, attachment, psychophysiological reactivity during a conflict discussion task, and a self- and partner report of men's proactive and reactive aggressive tendencies. RESULTS: The results revealed a 54% classification agreement between perpetrator and victim reports. No differences were found on personality or attachment measures between the groups regardless of gender of the reporter. Reactive violence was related to a tendency to self-report more reactive aggression and higher heart rate reactivity during a laboratory conflict discussion compared to the group reporting both proactive and reactive violent incidents. CONCLUSION: This study suggests that a coding system for intimate partner violence can be applied to community volunteers, and it is a reliable report and valid. However, there are discrepancies when the coding is based on the perpetrator or victim reports.

Differential Treatment Response of Proactive and Reactive Partner Abusive Men: Results from a Laboratory Proximal Change Experiment.

Objective: The current study reexamines data from Babcock et al. (2011) proximal change experiment to discern the differential utility of two communication skills-based interventions for proactive and reactive partner violence offenders. Method: Partner violent men were randomly assigned to the Editing Out the Negative skill, the Accepting Influence skill, or to a placebo/timeout and reengaged in a conflict discussion with their partners. Proactivity was tested as a moderator of immediate intervention outcomes. The ability to learn the communication skills, changes in self-reported affect, observed aggression, and psychophysiological responding were examined as a function of proactivity of violence. Results: Highly proactive men had some difficulty learning the Accepting Influence skill and they responded poorly to this intervention. They responded positively to the Editing Out the Negative technique, with less aggression, more positive affect, and lower heart rates. Low proactive (i.e., reactive) men tended to feel less aggressive, more positive, and less physiologically aroused after completing the Accepting Influence technique. Conclusions: This study lends support for tailoring batterer interventions specific to perpetrator characteristics.

Objetivo: El presente estudio reexamina los datos de Babcock et al. (2011) con respecto a un experimento de cambio proximal para discernir la utilidad diferencial de dos intervenciones basadas en habilidades de comunicación para agresores de violencia de pareja proactivos y reactivos. Método: A los agresores se les asignó aleatoriamente a las condiciones habilidad de eliminar lo negativo, habilidad de aceptación de la influencia, o placebo/tiempo fuera y volvieron a participar en una discusión conflictiva con sus parejas. Se evaluó la proactividad como moderadora de los resultados proximales de la intervención. Se examinó la capacidad de aprender habilidades de comunicación, los cambios en el afecto autoinformado, la agresión observada y la respuesta psicofisiológica en función de la proactividad de la violencia. Resultados: Los hombres muy proactivos tuvieron algunas dificultades para aprender la habilidad de aceptación de la influencia y respondieron escasamente a esta intervención. Sin embargo, respondieron positivamente a la técnica de eliminar lo negativo, con menor agresión, más afecto positivo y una frecuencia cardíaca más baja. Los hombres poco proactivos (es decir, reactivos) tendían a sentirse menos agresivos, más positivos y menos activados fisiológicamente después de completar la técnica de aceptación de la influencia. Conclusiones: Este estudio proporciona apoyo a la adaptación de las intervenciones para maltratadores a las características específicas del agresor.

Which battering interventions work? An updated Meta-analytic review of intimate partner violence treatment outcome research.

This meta-analytic review is an update to the first meta-analysis of battering interventions (Babcock et al., 2004) and includes 59 studies that evaluated treatment efficacy for domestically violent men and women. The outcome literature of controlled quasi-experimental and experimental studies was reviewed to test the relative impact of Duluth, cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT), and novel types of treatment on subsequent recidivism of violence. The first model examines studies comparing interventions to no treatment control conditions. The second model compares novel interventions to treatment as usual (i.e., the Duluth curriculum). Study design and type of treatment were tested as moderators in both models. Consistent with previous meta-analyses, effect sizes were in the small range, smaller in true experiments as compared to quasi-experimental designs when recidivism was based on partner or police reports. However, new experiments comparing novel treatments to the Duluth curriculum reveal effect sizes comparable to when comparing novel interventions to an untreated comparison group. Novel interventions, including Acceptance and Commitment Therapy and Circles of Peace had the largest effect sizes when put head-to-head with Duluth control groups. Future research directions include testing moderators and mechanisms of change of the battering interventions that work. Implications for evidence-based practice in criminal justice include broader implementation and continued testing of these novel interventions with demonstrated efficacy in stopping intimate partner violence.

Physical Intimate Partner Violence Concordance Rates in Couples: Does CTS2 Item Order Matter?

Intimate partner violence (IPV) concordance rates between partners are low across national, community, and clinical samples. Discordance between partners' IPV reports is problematic given that self-report questionnaires, such as the CTS2, are commonly used to assess IPV. Moreover, most research is based solely on the report of one partner. Some have attributed this discordance to how CTS2 items are presented. The CTS2 presents items inquiring on the frequencies of perpetration by oneself and then one's partner in pairs. The present study examined whether IPV concordance rates improve if couples are administered a version of the CTS2 where all items assessing their partner's behaviors are presented first, followed by items assessing the respondents' behaviors. Additionally, the present study examined whether correlations between self-reported and partner-reported perpetration and victimization differ depending on the order in which CTS2 items are presented. Two samples of heterosexual couples were recruited from a large metropolitan area in the United States. The first sample was administered the CTS2 in its usual format. The second sample was administered a version of the CTS2 that presented items on one's partners' behavior first, followed by self-reported behavior. Results revealed that concordance rates among violent couples were higher in the group administered the CTS2 in its altered format, particularly agreement on male IPV perpetration. However, when agreement on minor and severe IPV was examined separately, concordance rates between groups were relatively similar for severe IPV. These findings suggest that altering the item presentation of the CTS2 may improve the interrater reliability of the Physical Assault Scale of the CTS2. Additional results are discussed.

The Proximal Effect of Alcohol on Intimate Partner Violence: Comparing the Antecedents of Intoxicated and Sober Men's Violent Acts.

Alcohol use is known to correlate with intimate partner violence (IPV) perpetration, yet little research examines how alcohol influences how the violence unfolds. The current study used sequential analysis to examine descriptions of past violent incidents and explore the behaviors that preceded men's perpetration of IPV. In accordance with the alcohol myopia model of alcohol use, it was hypothesized that intoxicated men would respond violently to a wide range of partner cues, whereas men who were sober would only react violently in response to the most threatening partner cues. Moreover, intoxicated men were expected to demonstrate less inhibition of violence to suppressor cues of the partners' distress as compared to sober men. Participants were 80 couples reporting male-to-female IPV within the past year. Female partners' descriptions of two past violent events were coded and entered into sequential analysis. Antecedents to the men's first violent action were examined. While sober men were likely to react violently to their partner's physical threat and perceived threat, intoxicate men did not. Sober men were less likely to become violent after their partners displayed distress cues, whereas there was no suppressor effect of women's distress for intoxicated men. The precursors of the violence of intoxicated men appears to be indiscriminate and unpredictable. Clinical interventions that rely on behavioral strategies or communication skills training are unlikely to be effective for those who have an unmanaged alcohol use disorder.

Posttraumatic Stress Disorder and Relationship Satisfaction among Firefighters: The Role of Emotion Regulation Difficulties.

Firefighters are exposed to potentially traumatic events throughout their careers, placing them at heightened risk for the development of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Individuals experiencing PTSD symptoms often experience interpersonal problems and relationship stress, and this may be due to emotion regulation difficulties. The current study examined the association between PTSD symptoms, couple relationship satisfaction, and emotion regulation difficulties among firefighters. Participants were comprised of 188 firefighters (M age = 41.32, SD = 9.25, 97.3% male) who completed an online questionnaire. Results indicated that PTSD symptom severity was negatively associated with relationship satisfaction and positively associated with emotion regulation difficulties. Additionally, there was a significant negative indirect effect of PTSD symptom severity on relationship satisfaction through heightened emotion regulation difficulties. Negative alterations in cognition and mood were especially relevant to emotion regulation difficulties and relationship satisfaction. Findings highlight the importance of understanding associations between PTSD and interpersonal functioning among firefighters. Emotion regulation difficulties may offer a clinically relevant transdiagnostic factor for targeting PTSD symptoms and relationship functioning among firefighters.

Borderline Personality Features, Anger, and Intimate Partner Violence: An Experimental Manipulation of Rejection.

Individuals with borderline personality features may be susceptible to react to situational stressors with negative and interpersonally maladaptive emotionality (e.g., anger) and aggression. The current study attempted to test two moderated mediation models to investigate dispositional risk factors associated with borderline personality features and intimate partner violence (IPV). Results from an experimental rejection induction paradigm were examined using moderated regression to observe contextual reactions to imagined romantic rejection from a current romantic partner among individuals with borderline personality features. An ethnically diverse sample of 218 undergraduates at a large public university in the southwestern United States was recruited. Participants responded to demographic questions and self-report measures, and engaged in an experimental rejection induction paradigm. Borderline personality features was positively associated with rejection sensitivity, physical assault, and psychological aggression. Contrary to initial hypotheses, rejection sensitivity did not serve as a mediator of the relations between borderline personality features and physical assault and psychological aggression. However, trait anger mediated the relation between borderline personality features and psychological aggression. As such, trait anger may be an important explanatory variable in the relation between borderline personality features and psychological aggression specifically. Results of the rejection induction paradigm indicated that, for individuals who were asked to imagine an ambiguous rejection, the relation between borderline personality features and state anger post-rejection was strengthened. For individuals who imagined a critical rejection, there was no significant relation between borderline personality features and state anger post-rejection. Findings suggest that trait anger may be an important dispositional factor in the link between borderline personality features and IPV. In addition, contextual factors, such as ambiguous rejection by an intimate partner, may be especially relevant in activating anger or aggression in individuals with borderline personality features.

Effects of Angry Rumination and Distraction in Intimate Partner Violent Men.

Although the tendency to ruminate is related to the frequency of intimate partner violent (IPV) perpetration, it is unclear how IPV men react emotionally and physiologically during angry rumination. This study is the first to experimentally manipulate rumination and distraction with violent men. Using the rumination and distraction paradigm developed by Nolen-Hoeksema and Morrow, IPV (N = 87) and nonviolent (NV; N = 30) men underwent an anger induction and then were randomly assigned to either ruminate or distract. IPV men were hypothesized to experience increased effects of rumination compared to NV men. As predicted, the results demonstrate an increase in heart rate from baseline to postrumination. No change in physiological arousal was observed in the distraction condition over time. Surprisingly, no difference state anger was found between IPV and NV men, and both conditions resulted in an increase in state anger. Implications for battering interventions suggest that distraction strategies, such as taking a time-out, are not sufficient to decrease physiological arousal. Intervention strategies that address mindfulness, physiological soothing, distorted cognitions, and rumination may be more powerful in decreasing negative physiological arousal among IPV men.

Physical and psychological abuse in breast cancer survivors and cancer-free women.

The purpose of this study was to provide a preliminary examination of intimate partner abuse in survivors of breast cancer relative to women who have never been diagnosed with cancer. The current study retrospectively evaluated the presence of physical or severe psychological abuse before cancer diagnosis, during treatment, and after remission of cancer in a sample of 206 ethnically diverse breast cancer survivors and 206 age- and ethnicity-matched control participants. Breast cancer survivors were less likely than controls to report abuse and did not report significant changes in frequency of abuse after cancer diagnosis or treatment.

Facial affect recognition moderates the relation between autonomic nervous system reactivity and aggression during dyadic conflict.

Researchers examining physiological factors of emotion have identified differential patterns of physiological reactivity among intimate partner violence perpetrators during interpersonal conflict. Although it is unclear what mechanisms are influencing these distinct physiological patterns, research suggests that perpetrators' ability to decode emotions may be involved. The current study examined how the relation between an individual's physiological reactivity and their aggression during conflict with an intimate partner is influenced by the affect they are exposed to and their affect recognition ability. Sixty-seven heterosexual couples completed self-report measures and participated in a conflict discussion while physiological measures were recorded. The sympathetic nervous system (SNS) was indexed by Skin Conductance Level (SCL) and the parasympathetic nervous system (PNS) by Respiratory Sinus Arrhythmia (RSA). Aggressive affect was coded from video. Additionally, men were administered a facial affect recognition task. Results indicated that observed aggression during the conflict discussion was associated with RSA and SCL suppression, but only for men with moderate to high affect recognition ability. Additionally, the interaction effects between physiological reactivity and affect recognition on male aggression was conditional on their partner exhibiting at least moderate levels of aggressive affect. Findings from our study suggest that the relation between autonomic nervous system reactivity during conflict and aggression toward an intimate partner is conditional on men's ability to decode the facial affect of their partner. For individuals who were able to decode aggressive affect from their partner, aggression was associated with decreased parasympathetic and SNS activation.

Empathy Mediates the Relations between Working Memory and Perpetration of Intimate Partner Violence and Aggression.

Deficits in executive functioning have been associated with aggressive and violent behavior toward intimate partners. However, it is unclear what specific mechanisms are being affected by cognitive deficits that increase an individual's tendency to become aggressive. The current study examined empathy as a mediating factor between deficits in working memory and perpetration of intimate partner aggression and violence. Men in heterosexual relationships (N = 49) were administered a measure of visual-spatial working memory, and questionnaire measures of head injury and empathy. During a second session, men participated in a conflict discussion with their female partner that was coded for aggressive behavior. Female partners also reported on men's physical and psychological abuse. Working memory was positively related to cognitive and affective empathy, and negatively related to men's physical abuse perpetration and observed aggression during the conflict discussion. The effects of working memory on observed aggression during the conflict were fully mediated by cognitive and affective empathy. Additionally, the effects of working memory on reported physical IPV frequency were fully mediated by affective empathy. Deficits in working memory may decrease men's ability to use empathetic processes, resulting in increased aggression and violence toward their intimate partners. Clinically, incorporating empathy training in battering intervention programs may be helpful, especially among men with deficits in cognitive functioning.

Differential Predictors of Intimate Partner Sexual Coercion Versus Physical Assault Perpetration.

The current study attempted to strengthen existing literature regarding predictors of perpetrating intimate partner sexual violence to determine if there are unique predictors of sexual violence that differentiate it from physical abuse. It was hypothesised that men's controlling, dominant and jealousy behaviours, and verbal aggression would significantly predict increased intimate partner sexual coercion and physical assault perpetration. These predictors were expected to be more predictive of sexual coercion than physical assault perpetration. Couples were recruited from the community (N = 159) in a cross-sectional study recruiting couples with a violent male partner. Results demonstrated that men's controlling behaviour was a significant predictor of sexual coercion and physical assault perpetration and behavioural jealousy was a significant predictor of sexual coercion perpetration. No predictors studied better predicted sexual coercion more than physical assault perpetration. These findings suggest that sexual coercion may be another type of physical assault without unique predictors.

Differential Treatment Response of Proactive and Reactive Partner Abusive Men: Results from a Laboratory Proximal Change Experiment / [La respuesta al tratamiento diferencial de hombres maltratadores proactivos y reactivos: los resultados de un experimento de cambio proximal de laboratorio]

Objective: The current study reexamines data from Babcock et al. (2011) proximal change experiment to discern the differential utility of two communication skills-based interventions for proactive and reactive partner violence offenders. Method: Partner violent men were randomly assigned to the Editing Out the Negative skill, the Accepting Influence skill, or to a placebo/timeout and reengaged in a conflict discussion with their partners. Proactivity was tested as a moderator of immediate intervention outcomes. The ability to learn the communication skills, changes in self-reported affect, observed aggression, and psychophysiological responding were examined as a function of proactivity of violence. Results: Highly proactive men had some difficulty learning the Accepting Influence skill and they responded poorly to this intervention. They responded positively to the Editing Out the Negative technique, with less aggression, more positive affect, and lower heart rates. Low proactive (i.e., reactive) men tended to feel less aggressive, more positive, and less physiologically aroused after completing the Accepting Influence technique. Conclusions: This study lends support for tailoring batterer interventions specific to perpetrator characteristics.(AU)

Objetivo: El presente estudio reexamina los datos de Babcock et al. (2011) con respecto a un experimento de cambio proximal para discernir la utilidad diferencial de dos intervenciones basadas en habilidades de comunicación para agresores de violencia de pareja proactivos y reactivos. Método: A los agresores se les asignó aleatoriamente a las condiciones habilidad de eliminar lo negativo, habilidad de aceptación de la influencia, o placebo/tiempo fuera y volvieron a participar en una discusión conflictiva con sus parejas. Se evaluó la proactividad como moderadora de los resultados proximales de la intervención. Se examinó la capacidad de aprender habilidades de comunicación, los cambios en el afecto autoinformado, la agresión observada y la respuesta psicofisiológica en función de la proactividad de la violencia. Resultados: Los hombres muy proactivos tuvieron algunas dificultades para aprender la habilidad de aceptación de la influencia y respondieron escasamente a esta intervención. Sin embargo, respondieron positivamente a la técnica de eliminar lo negativo, con menor agresión, más afecto positivo y una frecuencia cardíaca más baja. Los hombres poco proactivos (es decir, reactivos) tendían a sentirse menos agresivos, más positivos y menos activados fisiológicamente después de completar la técnica de aceptación de la influencia. Conclusiones: Este estudio proporciona apoyo a la adaptación de las intervenciones para maltratadores a las características específicas del agresor.(AU)

Distinguishing Subtypes of Mutual Violence in the Context of Self-defense: Classifying Types of Partner Violent Couples using a Modified Conflict Tactics Scale.

PURPOSE: The Revised Conflict Tactics Scale 2 (CTS2; Straus, Hamby, Boney-McCoy, & Sugarman, 1996) is the most widely used measure for assessing the frequency of intimate partner violence (IPV). However, it has been criticized for not capturing the context in which IPV takes place. This study examined follow-up items to each CTS2 physical assault item asking to clarify how often the act was perpetrated in self-defense. METHOD: A community sample of couples (N = 180) recruited for men's recent violence toward women completed the project-modified Conflict Tactics Scale with Self-Defense (CTS2SD). The majority (69.5%) reported that the physical aggression in the past year was bilateral. On the follow-up items, 27% of men's violent acts and over 22% of women's violent acts were reportedly committed in self-defense. Men's and women's CTS2 physical assault perpetration scores, along with the percentage that were committed in self-defense, were entered into two-step cluster analyses. RESULTS: Cluster analyses revealed three subgroups of bilateral violence: Male Self-defense, Female Self-defense, and Mutual Violence. The Mutual Violent cluster reported the most frequent physical assault, injury, men's controlling behavior and men's arrest for domestic violence. CONCLUSIONS: Findings suggest that Straus' (2012) tripartite conceptualization of Man-only, Woman-only, and Both-violent couples is overly simplistic and fails to capture different types of bilateral aggression.

Intimate partner abuse and PTSD symptomatology: examining mediators and moderators of the abuse-trauma link.

Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) has been linked to intimate partner abuse, physiological reactivity, and social support. The authors used structural equation modeling to test social support as a moderator and psychophysiological reactivity and anger as mediators of the relation between abuse and traumatic symptoms among a sample of women reporting psychological abuse, including women reporting both physical violence and no physical violence. Both physical and psychological abuse were related to PTSD symptoms. Whereas physical and psychological abuse were highly correlated, psychological abuse did not predict PTSD symptomatology over and above the effect due to physical assault. Psychophysiological reactivity and anger and fear displayed during an argument with the partner did not mediate the abuse?trauma link. Social support moderated the relation between psychological abuse and PTSD symptomatology.

Psychophysiological Reactivity Profiles of Partner-Violent Men With Borderline or Psychopathic Personality Features: The Role of Empathy.

Borderline and psychopathic features have been linked to unique psychophysiological reactivity profiles. Studies have suggested that levels of psychophysiological reactivity for partner-violent men cannot be attributed to personality features alone. This study tested cognitive and affective empathy as moderators of relations between borderline personality, Factor 1 psychopathy, and psychophysiological reactivity using a community sample of 135 male participants and their female partners. Cognitive empathy moderated the relation between borderline personality features and heart rate reactivity. Affective empathy moderated the relation between Factor 1 psychopathy features and heart rate reactivity. However, directions of these interactions were contrary to original predictions. Understanding unique empathy deficits may be beneficial for identifying ways to minimize relationship conflict, manage arousal, and decrease violence.

Exploring the Moderating Role of Problematic Substance Use in the Relations Between Borderline and Antisocial Personality Features and Intimate Partner Violence.

Borderline and antisocial personality features relate to multiple externalizing behaviors, including intimate partner violence (IPV). However, not all individuals with borderline and antisocial traits perpetrate IPV. The strength of the personality-IPV link may be related to problematic substance use. We examined borderline and antisocial personality features, problematic substance use, and IPV in a community sample of couples. Positive relations between both borderline and antisocial features and IPV were stronger in conditions of high problematic alcohol use relative to low problematic alcohol use. Alcohol misuse may be an important factor to consider for IPV reduction in men with these personality features.

Preliminary report on the Accountability Scale: a change and outcome measure for intimate partner violence research.

The current study investigated the reliability of a new self-report questionnaire assessing accountability for the perpetration of intimate partner violence. The Accountability Scale (AS) is a brief, Likert-type measure designed to assess the degree to which perpetrators acknowledge and accept responsibility for their violent actions. In Study #1, an exploratory factor analysis on a clinical sample revealed two factors: Acknowledging Harm and Internalizing Responsibility. In Study #2, the factor structure was replicated on a community sample using confirmatory factor analysis, revealing an 11-item solution. Factor 1 was related to readiness to change but negatively related to social desirability, suggesting convergent and discriminant validity of that subscale. Factor 2 was negatively related to Factor 1 in the community sample, calling into question the construct of accountability. Preliminary evidence suggests that the AS shows promise as a brief and reliable tool to assess forms of accountability. Future research will examine if the two factors of accountability function as mechanisms of change and outcome measures in intimate partner violence intervention research.

Psychophysiological profiles of batterers: autonomic emotional reactivity as it predicts the antisocial spectrum of behavior among intimate partner abusers.

On the basis of studies finding heart rate deceleration among severely violent (SV) batterers (J. M. Gottman et al., 1995) and unsuccessful psychopaths (S. S. Ishikawa, A. Raine, T. Lencz, S. Bihrle, & L. Lacasse, 2001), this study compares the physiological reactivity of SV batterers (n=35) with low-level violent (LLV) batterers (n=37) and nonviolent men (n=21) during 2 laboratory tasks. Men's heart rate and skin conductance level were recorded during baseline, a conflict discussion, and a standardized anger induction. Results suggest that autonomic hyporeactivity is a risk marker for antisocial features among SV men, whereas autonomic hyperreactivity is a risk marker among LLV men. Psychophysiological responding appears to be a stronger correlate of general antisocial behavior than of intimate partner abuse.

Applying the transtheoretical model to female and male perpetrators of intimate partner violence: gender differences in stages and processes of change.

The Transtheoretical Model has been recently applied to men seeking services at battering intervention and prevention programs (Eckhardt, Babcock, & Homack, 2004; Murphy & Baxter, 1997). This study considers whether women arrested for intimate partner violence differ from male perpetrators in terms of stages of change and processes of change. No gender differences were found regarding stage of change. In general, all individuals presenting for treatment were in the early stages of change. The use of various processes of change was strongly related to stage of change, with individuals in the more advanced stages of change using more behavioral and experiential strategies to become nonviolent. However, except for the use of social liberation strategies, there were no gender differences in the use of the various processes. These findings suggest that the Transtheoretical Model may apply to female perpetrators equally as well as to male perpetrators. Intervention programs designed for male batterers using the Transtheoretical Model may also be helpful in the treatment of women arrested for domestic violence.