Interstellar molecular clouds.

The interstellar medium in our galaxy contains matter in a variety of states ranging from hot plasma to cold and dusty molecular gas. The molecular phase consists of giant clouds, which are the largest gravitationally bound objects in the galaxy, the primary reservoir of material for the ongoing birth of new stars, and the medium regulating the evolution of galactic disks.

Evidence for dust grain growth in young circumstellar disks.

Hundreds of circumstellar disks in the Orion nebula are being rapidly destroyed by the intense ultraviolet radiation produced by nearby bright stars. These young, million-year-old disks may not survive long enough to form planetary systems. Nevertheless, the first stage of planet formation-the growth of dust grains into larger particles-may have begun in these systems. Observational evidence for these large particles in Orion's disks is presented. A model of grain evolution in externally irradiated protoplanetary disks is developed and predicts rapid particle size evolution and sharp outer disk boundaries. We discuss implications for the formation rates of planetary systems.

Illuminating gravitational waves: A concordant picture of photons from a neutron star merger.

Merging neutron stars offer an excellent laboratory for simultaneously studying strong-field gravity and matter in extreme environments. We establish the physical association of an electromagnetic counterpart (EM170817) with gravitational waves (GW170817) detected from merging neutron stars. By synthesizing a panchromatic data set, we demonstrate that merging neutron stars are a long-sought production site forging heavy elements by r-process nucleosynthesis. The weak gamma rays seen in EM170817 are dissimilar to classical short gamma-ray bursts with ultrarelativistic jets. Instead, we suggest that breakout of a wide-angle, mildly relativistic cocoon engulfing the jet explains the low-luminosity gamma rays, the high-luminosity ultraviolet-optical-infrared, and the delayed radio and x-ray emission. We posit that all neutron star mergers may lead to a wide-angle cocoon breakout, sometimes accompanied by a successful jet and sometimes by a choked jet.

Recent development in the field of international liability regimes to tackle environmental risks.

The polluter-pays principle requires States to take any actions that may be necessary to ensure that polluters bear the full environmental and social costs of their activities. One step to implement this principle is the development of regulations on environmental Civil Liability. The adoption of the UN-ECE Protocol on Civil Liability and Compensation for Damage caused by the Transboundary Effects of Industrial Accidents on Transboundary Waters (Kiev Protocol) in May 2003 was the result of a three-year negotiation process undertaken in the aftermath of the Baia Mare accident in Romania. The accident caused transboundary water pollution in the downstream countries Hungary and Yugoslavia. Owing to the absence of applicable liability rules, no compensation was ever paid for the damage caused by the pollution. The Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety mandates the Parties to establish rules and procedures in the field of liability and redress. Here there is likely to be a longer negotiation process before an agreed regime on liability and redress for damage arising from the use of living modified organisms (LMOs) becomes available, owing to the complexity and the particularities of gene technology.

High-level expression of active human alpha1-antitrypsin in transgenic tobacco chloroplasts.

We have produced human alpha1-antitrypsin (A1AT), a major therapeutic protein, in genetically engineered tobacco plastids. Four different expression vectors have been evaluated which encode A1AT under the control of various 5' and 3' plastid expression elements. The use of heterologous promoter and terminator sequences derived from the corn and soybean plastid genomes leads to simpler and predictable recombinant genome patterns, avoiding unwanted recombination products between introduced and resident tobacco sequences. High level expression of unglycosylated A1AT, representing up to 2% of total soluble proteins, has been measured in leaves of transgenic tobacco lines. Some heterogeneity in the recombinant A1AT is detected after 2D protein separation, but the chloroplast-made protease inhibitors are fully active and bind to porcine pancreatic elastase.

225-GHz atmospheric opacity of the South Pole sky derived from continual radiometric measurements of the sky-brightness temperature.

We report measurements of the atmospheric opacity of the South Pole at 225 GHz for the period from day 3 to day 180 in 1992. These opacity data were derived from continual radiometric measurements of the sky-brightness temperature as a function of the zenith angle. These radiometric measurements were performed with a 225-GHz heterodyne atmospheric radiometer on loan from the National Radio Astronomy Observatory. This radiometer was previously used to characterize other candidate millimeter and submillimeter radio-telescope sites. We found that the atmospheric opacity was below 0.098 air mass(-1) 75% of the time from day 3 to day 70 in 1992, and below 0.055 air mass(-1) 75% of the time from day 70 to day 180 in 1992. Thus, our data demonstrate that the South Pole is an excellent site for performing millimeter-and submillimeter-wavelength radio astronomy.

Discovery of X-rays from the protostellar outflow object HH2.

Herbig-Haro (HH) objects have been known for 50 years to be luminous condensations of gas in star-forming regions, but their underlying physical nature is still being elucidated. Previously suggested models encompass newborn stars, stellar winds clashing with nebular material, dense pockets of interstellar gas excited by shocks from outflows, and interstellar 'bullets' (ref. 6). Recent progress has been made with the jet-induced shock model, in which material streams out of young stellar objects and collides with the surrounding interstellar medium. A clear prediction of this model is that the most energetic Herbig-Haro objects will emit X-rays, although they have not hitherto been detected. Here we report the discovery of X-ray emission from one of the brightest and closest Herbig-Haro objects, HH2, at a level consistent with the model predictions. We conclude that this Herbig-Haro object contains shock-heated material located at or near its leading edge with a temperature of about 106 K.