Impact of undernutrition on the pharmacokinetics of chemotherapy in children with cancer: A systematic review.

OBJECTIVES: This systematic review provides an overview of the effect of undernutrition on the pharmacokinetics of chemotherapy in children with cancer. METHODS: PubMed, Embase, and Cochrane were searched to identify eligible studies. This study uses the definition for undernutrition from the World Health Organization and the Gomez classification. RESULTS: Four studies with a total of 668 children with cancer were included and n = 121 (18%) were undernourished. Significant decreased clearance rates were found for vincristine in undernourished children compared to children with a normal nutritional status. CONCLUSION: Presenting outcomes only show significant changes in the pharmacokinetics of vincristine in undernourished children with cancer. However, data are scarce, groups were small, and none of the studies included severely undernourished children. In order to improve outcomes for (severely) undernourished children with cancer, more pharmacokinetic research is needed. The ultimate goal would be to develop subgroups, and ultimately individualized drug dosing in order to improve outcomes for children with cancer worldwide.

Distribution and frequency of tyrosine kinase inhibitor-associated long-term complications in children with chronic myeloid leukemia.

BACKGROUND: Tyrosine kinase inhibitors (TKIs) improve outcomes for pediatric malignancies characterized by specific gene rearrangements and mutations; however, little is known about the long-term impact of TKI exposure. Our objective was to assess the incidence and type of late-onset TKI-related toxicities in children with chronic myeloid leukemia (CML). METHODS: We reviewed medical records from patients diagnosed with CML between 2006 and 2019 at <21 years of age and prescribed one or more TKIs. Patients treated with stem cell transplant were excluded. Outcomes were captured beginning at 1 year after CML diagnosis. Outcome incidence was described overall and stratified by TKI exposure during the data-capture period. RESULTS: Twenty-two eligible TKI-exposed patients with CML were identified. The median follow-up was 6.0 years (range: 2.2-14.3). All pericardial (n = 3) or pleural (n = 3) effusion outcomes occurred in patients treated with TKIs during the data-capture period. Other outcomes included hypertension (n = 2), ectopy on electrocardiogram (n = 2), and gastrointestinal bleed (n = 1). All outcomes were graded as mild to moderate: some resulted in a temporary discontinuation of TKI, but none led to a change in TKI. No differences were noted in outcome incidence by type of TKI exposure. CONCLUSIONS: TKIs have substantially improved prognosis for subsets of childhood leukemia, but there are limited long-term data to inform exposure-based risk for late-onset complications and screening. Our results suggest that TKI-exposed survivors may be at risk for long-term outcomes that extend well into survivorship.

Blinatumomab use in pediatric ALL: Taking a BiTE out of preparation, administration and toxicity challenges.

Blinatumomab is the first in its class bispecific T-cell engager monoclonal antibody, which binds to CD19 expressed on B-cells and CD3 expressed on T-cells, resulting in lysis of CD19-positive cells common in B-cell malignancies. Blinatumomab is Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved for the treatment of adults and children with relapsed/refractory or minimal residual disease (MRD) positive precursor B-cell ALL (B-ALL). Despite impressive efficacy for the approved indications and favorable toxicity profile compared to standard-of-care chemotherapy, blinatumomab presents unique health-system challenges related to preparation, administration, toxicity monitoring and medication error prevention. Blinatumomab delivery also offers plethora of opportunities for interdisciplinary planning and collaboration. The purpose of this paper is to discuss practical considerations for safe blinatumomab delivery from the pharmacy and nursing perspectives.

Effect of Postreinduction Therapy Consolidation With Blinatumomab vs Chemotherapy on Disease-Free Survival in Children, Adolescents, and Young Adults With First Relapse of B-Cell Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia: A Randomized Clinical Trial.

Importance: Standard chemotherapy for first relapse of B-cell acute lymphoblastic leukemia (B-ALL) in children, adolescents, and young adults is associated with high rates of severe toxicities, subsequent relapse, and death, especially for patients with early relapse (high risk) or late relapse with residual disease after reinduction chemotherapy (intermediate risk). Blinatumomab, a bispecific CD3 to CD19 T cell-engaging antibody construct, is efficacious in relapsed/refractory B-ALL and has a favorable toxicity profile. Objective: To determine whether substituting blinatumomab for intensive chemotherapy in consolidation therapy would improve survival in children, adolescents, and young adults with high- and intermediate-risk first relapse of B-ALL. Design, Setting, and Participants: This trial was a randomized phase 3 clinical trial conducted by the Children's Oncology Group at 155 hospitals in the US, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand with enrollment from December 2014 to September 2019 and follow-up until September 30, 2020. Eligible patients included those aged 1 to 30 years with B-ALL first relapse, excluding those with Down syndrome, Philadelphia chromosome-positive ALL, prior hematopoietic stem cell transplant, or prior blinatumomab treatment (n = 669). Interventions: All patients received a 4-week reinduction chemotherapy course, followed by randomized assignment to receive 2 cycles of blinatumomab (n = 105) or 2 cycles of multiagent chemotherapy (n = 103), each followed by transplant. Main Outcome and Measures: The primary end point was disease-free survival and the secondary end point was overall survival, both from the time of randomization. The threshold for statistical significance was set at a 1-sided P <.025. Results: Among 208 randomized patients (median age, 9 years; 97 [47%] females), 118 (57%) completed the randomized therapy. Randomization was terminated at the recommendation of the data and safety monitoring committee without meeting stopping rules for efficacy or futility; at that point, 80 of 131 planned events occurred. With 2.9 years of median follow-up, 2-year disease-free survival was 54.4% for the blinatumomab group vs 39.0% for the chemotherapy group (hazard ratio for disease progression or mortality, 0.70 [95% CI, 0.47-1.03]); 1-sided P = .03). Two-year overall survival was 71.3% for the blinatumomab group vs 58.4% for the chemotherapy group (hazard ratio for mortality, 0.62 [95% CI, 0.39-0.98]; 1-sided P = .02). Rates of notable serious adverse events included infection (15%), febrile neutropenia (5%), sepsis (2%), and mucositis (1%) for the blinatumomab group and infection (65%), febrile neutropenia (58%), sepsis (27%), and mucositis (28%) for the chemotherapy group. Conclusions and Relevance: Among children, adolescents, and young adults with high- and intermediate-risk first relapse of B-ALL, postreinduction treatment with blinatumomab compared with chemotherapy, followed by transplant, did not result in a statistically significant difference in disease-free survival. However, study interpretation is limited by early termination with possible underpowering for the primary end point. Trial Registration: ClinicalTrials.gov Identifier: NCT02101853.

Risk factors associated with delayed methotrexate clearance and increased toxicity in pediatric patients with osteosarcoma.

High-dose methotrexate (HD-MTX; 12 g/m2 ) is part of standard therapy for pediatric osteosarcoma (OS). Risk factors associated with MTX toxicity in children with OS are not well defined. We investigated the association between peak MTX levels (four-hour) and delayed MTX clearance or treatment toxicity. Information was retrieved from electronic medical records of 33 OS patients treated with HD-MTX at Texas Children's Hospital from 2008 to 2015. We found that the four-hour MTX level did not contribute to toxicity or delayed MTX clearance. We demonstrated that certain demographic characteristics are associated with delayed clearance and increased toxicity.

Using a Bedside Algorithm to Individually Dose High-dose Methotrexate for Patients at Risk for Toxicity.

We developed a bedside algorithm for individually adjusting the high-dose methotrexate (HDMTX) dose (5 g/m) given to patients with acute lymphoblastic leukemia at high risk for methotrexate toxicity. Data were reviewed for 8 patients receiving 21 cycles of HDMTX as per our algorithm. Eleven cycles began with 5 g/m, 10 cycles began with a preinfusion 20% to 25% dose reduction. Neither mean MTX AUC (2320.5±179.1 vs. 2080.4±161.7 µmol×h/L), mean Cpss (64.3±7.9 vs. 60.8±6.1 µM), nor toxicities were statistically different between groups. Our algorithm allowed the safe administration of HDMTX to patients at risk of MTX toxicities and obviated the need for preinfusion dose reduction.

Clinical covariates that improve the description of high dose methotrexate pharmacokinetics in a diverse population to inform MTXPK.org.

The MTXPK.org webtool was launched in December 2019 and was developed to facilitate model-informed supportive care and optimal use of glucarpidase following the administration of high-dose methotrexate (HDMTX). One limitation identified during the original development of the MTXPK.org tool was the perceived generalizability because the modeled population comprised solely of Nordic pediatric patients receiving 24-h infusions for the treatment of acute lymphoblastic leukemia. The goal of our study is to describe the pharmacokinetics of HDMTX from a diverse patient population (e.g., races, ethnicity, indications for methotrexate, and variable infusion durations) and identify meaningful factors that account for methotrexate variability and improve the model's performance. To do this, retrospectively analyzed pharmacokinetic and toxicity data from pediatric and adolescent young adult patients who were receiving HDMTX (>0.5 g/m2 ) for the treatment of a cancer diagnosis from three pediatric medical centers. We performed population pharmacokinetic modeling referencing the original MTXPK.org NONMEM model (includes body surface area and serum creatinine as covariates) on 1668 patients, 7506 administrations of HDMTX, and 30,250 concentrations. Our results support the parameterizations of short infusion duration (<8 h) and the presence of Down syndrome on methotrexate clearance, the parameterization of severe hypoalbuminemia (<2.5 g/dL) on the intercompartmental clearance (Q2 and Q3), and the parameterization of pleural effusion on the volume of distribution (V1 and V2). These novel parameterizations will increase the generalizability of the MTXPK.org model once they are added to the webtool.

Children's Oncology Group AALL1331: Phase III Trial of Blinatumomab in Children, Adolescents, and Young Adults With Low-Risk B-Cell ALL in First Relapse.

PURPOSE: Blinatumomab, a bispecific T-cell engager immunotherapy, is efficacious in relapsed/refractory B-cell ALL (B-ALL) and has a favorable toxicity profile. One aim of the Children's Oncology Group AALL1331 study was to compare survival of patients with low-risk (LR) first relapse of B-ALL treated with chemotherapy alone or chemotherapy plus blinatumomab. PATIENTS AND METHODS: After block 1 reinduction, patients age 1-30 years with LR first relapse of B-ALL were randomly assigned to block 2/block 3/two continuation chemotherapy cycles/maintenance (arm C) or block 2/two cycles of continuation chemotherapy intercalated with three blinatumomab blocks/maintenance (arm D). Patients with CNS leukemia received 18 Gy cranial radiation during maintenance and intensified intrathecal chemotherapy. The primary and secondary end points were disease-free survival (DFS) and overall survival (OS). RESULTS: The 4-year DFS/OS for the 255 LR patients accrued between December 2014 and September 2019 were 61.2% ± 5.0%/90.4% ± 3.0% for blinatumomab versus 49.5% ± 5.2%/79.6% ± 4.3% for chemotherapy (P = .089/P = .11). For bone marrow (BM) ± extramedullary (EM) (BM ± EM; n = 174) relapses, 4-year DFS/OS were 72.7% ± 5.8%/97.1% ± 2.1% for blinatumomab versus 53.7% ± 6.7%/84.8% ± 4.8% for chemotherapy (P = .015/P = .020). For isolated EM (IEM; n = 81) relapses, 4-year DFS/OS were 36.6% ± 8.2%/76.5% ± 7.5% for blinatumomab versus 38.8% ± 8.0%/68.8% ± 8.6% for chemotherapy (P = .62/P = .53). Blinatumomab was well tolerated and patients had low adverse event rates. CONCLUSION: For children, adolescents, and young adults with B-ALL in LR first relapse, there was no statistically significant difference in DFS or OS between the blinatumomab and standard chemotherapy arms overall. However, blinatumomab significantly improved DFS and OS for the two thirds of patients with BM ± EM relapse, establishing a new standard of care for this population. By contrast, similar outcomes and poor DFS for both arms were observed in the one third of patients with IEM; new treatment approaches are needed for these patients (ClinicalTrials.gov identifier: NCT02101853).

Repurposing Atovaquone as a Therapeutic against Acute Myeloid Leukemia (AML): Combination with Conventional Chemotherapy Is Feasible and Well Tolerated.

Survival of pediatric AML remains poor despite maximized myelosuppressive therapy. The pneumocystis jiroveci pneumonia (PJP)-treating medication atovaquone (AQ) suppresses oxidative phosphorylation (OXPHOS) and reduces AML burden in patient-derived xenograft (PDX) mouse models, making it an ideal concomitant AML therapy. Poor palatability and limited product formulations have historically limited routine use of AQ in pediatric AML patients. Patients with de novo AML were enrolled at two hospitals. Daily AQ at established PJP dosing was combined with standard AML therapy, based on the Medical Research Council backbone. AQ compliance, adverse events (AEs), ease of administration score (scale: 1 (very difficult)-5 (very easy)) and blood/marrow pharmacokinetics (PK) were collected during Induction 1. Correlative studies assessed AQ-induced apoptosis and effects on OXPHOS. PDX models were treated with AQ. A total of 26 patients enrolled (ages 7.2 months-19.7 years, median 12 years); 24 were evaluable. A total of 14 (58%) and 19 (79%) evaluable patients achieved plasma concentrations above the known anti-leukemia concentration (>10 µM) by day 11 and at the end of Induction, respectively. Seven (29%) patients achieved adequate concentrations for PJP prophylaxis (>40 µM). Mean ease of administration score was 3.8. Correlative studies with AQ in patient samples demonstrated robust apoptosis, OXPHOS suppression, and prolonged survival in PDX models. Combining AQ with chemotherapy for AML appears feasible and safe in pediatric patients during Induction 1 and shows single-agent anti-leukemic effects in PDX models. AQ appears to be an ideal concomitant AML therapeutic but may require intra-patient dose adjustment to achieve concentrations sufficient for PJP prophylaxis.

Comparison of the blood, bone marrow, and cerebrospinal fluid metabolomes in children with b-cell acute lymphoblastic leukemia.

Metabolomics may shed light on treatment response in childhood acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL), however, most assessments have analyzed bone marrow or cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), which are not collected during all phases of therapy. Blood is collected frequently and with fewer risks, but it is unclear whether findings from marrow or CSF biomarker studies may translate. We profiled end-induction plasma, marrow, and CSF from N = 10 children with B-ALL using liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry. We estimated correlations between plasma and marrow/CSF metabolite abundances detected in ≥ 3 patients using Spearman rank correlation coefficients (rs). Most marrow metabolites were detected in plasma (N = 661; 81%), and we observed moderate-to-strong correlations (median rs 0.62, interquartile range [IQR] 0.29-0.83). We detected 328 CSF metabolites in plasma (90%); plasma-CSF correlations were weaker (median rs 0.37, IQR 0.07-0.70). We observed plasma-marrow correlations for metabolites in pathways associated with end-induction residual disease (pyruvate, asparagine) and plasma-CSF correlations for a biomarker of fatigue (gamma-glutamylglutamine). There is considerable overlap between the plasma, marrow, and CSF metabolomes, and we observed strong correlations for biomarkers of clinically relevant phenotypes. Plasma may be suitable for biomarker studies in B-ALL.

Using improvement science to promote evidence-based practice in a childhood cancer and hematology center.

A major children's cancer and hematology center established a Quality Transformation (QT) Core to develop and monitor empirical outcomes that demonstrate excellence in clinical care. The QT Core, based on the Institute of Medicine's domains of quality health care, aims to ensure that care is safe, effective, patient centered, timely, efficient, and equitable. Specific goals for the first year of the QT Core were to develop a team of improvement science experts, engage faculty and staff in QT initiatives, promote accountability for excellence in clinical care, and establish specific metrics to evaluate process, structure, and outcomes for QT Core projects. The purpose of this article is to discuss the successful development of a quality transformation core within a pediatric subspecialty and demonstrate the principles of improvement science through an actual quality transformation project designed to implement an evidence-based guideline for procedural sedation for children with cancer. The QT Core within this subspecialty was founded on principles of successful transformation of patient care that includes motivation to change, leaders committed to quality, active engagement of staff in meaningful problem-solving initiatives, alignment with organization goals with resource allocation, and integration to bridge boundaries throughout an organization. These key principles are demonstrated through the discussion of the development of the QT Core and implementation of an evidence-based procedure sedation guideline. Pediatric and pediatric subspecialty groups can be on the forefront of national initiatives that promote quality health care, exemplified by the QT Core developed within the cancer and hematology center.